Акупунктура, Аюрведа Ароматерапия и эфирные масла, Консультации специалистов: Рэйки; Гомеопатия; Народная медицина; Йога; Лекарственные травы; Нетрадиционная медицина; Дыхательные практики; Гороскоп; Правильное питание Эзотерика

Предисловие

Предлагаемый вашему вниманию практический курс был разработан специально для передовых российских менеджеров (и всех, кто хочет ими стать), желающих усовершенствовать свой деловой английский. Он рассчитан на студентов, достаточно свободно владеющих английским языком. Задача данного пособия – представить учащимся в соответствующем контексте современную экономическую, управленческую и финансовую лексику; оно знакомит также с модным жаргоном, на котором сейчас говорят в международном деловом, финансовом и инвестиционном сообществе.

Структура пособия во многом ориентирована на учебные программы, которые обычно преподаются в школах бизнеса. В него включены материалы по управлению ценностью (стоимостью), корпоративному управлению, корпоративной культуре, социальной ответственности корпораций, сбалансированной системе показателей, Нью-Йоркской фондовой бирже, рынку облигаций, торговле производными финансовыми инструментами, инвестиционной стратегии, оценке российских компаний и т. п. Пособие содержит тексты о таких широко известных компаниях, как «Дженерал электрик», «Энрон», «Хьюлетт-Паккард», «Газпром», «Аэрофлот». Особый акцент сделан на материалах по экономике, инвестиционному климату, финансовому рынку России, проблемам российского бизнеса.

В учебных целях были подобраны тексты из самых разных источников: ведущих западных финансово-экономических журналов и газет (Business Week, Fortune, The Economist, Wall Street Journal, New York Times); представлены отчеты компаний, материалы инвестиционных банков и т. п. Это дает студентам возможность ознакомиться с разнообразными стилями изложения материала. При необходимости тексты были сокращены и адаптированы.

Пособие включает 40 уроков. Каждый урок содержит упражнения, позволяющие закрепить новые слова и лучше разобраться в теме занятия.

Англо-русский словарь в конце учебника представляет собой так называемый магистерский минимум – более тысячи терминов, которые следует знать профессионалам в сфере экономики и финансов.

Поскольку русский финансово-экономический язык находится в процессе формирования и разные источники зачастую дают разный перевод многих профессиональных терминов, автор ориентировалась на «Банковский и экономический словарь» Б.Г. Федорова, который, как представляется, дает наиболее верную трактовку важнейших понятий. В некоторых случаях автор исходила из собственных представлений о правильности перевода английской терминологии.

Учебное пособие поможет студентам школ бизнеса, языковых, экономических и финансовых вузов, а также специалистам из различных секторов экономики овладеть профессиональной лексикой делового английского языка.

Успехов!

Автор

Lesson 1
Motivation Theories

Read and translate the text and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

Motivation Theories

Motivation is at the heart of your success. Because management is all about getting things done through others, the ability to get others to perform is critical. A crucial driver of organizational performance, motivation refers to the processes that determine how much effort will be expended to perform the job in order to meet organizational goals. A lack of motivation costs the company money – in terms of lost productivity and missed opportunities.

With downsizing and restructuring becoming commonplace in organizations, employee morale has become negatively impacted. This has made the motivation of the workforce even more important.

The old command-and-control methods of motivating are not suitable for today’s environment of empowerment and teams. Providing one-size-fits-all rewards does not work with diverse workforce.

No single theory captures the complexity of motivation in its entirety. You need to understand multiple theories, and then integrate them to get a more comprehensive understanding of how to better motivate your employees.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow developed a theory in 1943 to analyze what drives human behavior. The Hierarchy of Needs Theory explained human behavior in terms of needs.

His theory’s underlying premise is that people must have their needs met in order to function effectively. These needs are ordered in a hierarchy.

Maslow suggested that human behavior is first motivated by basic physiological needs. That is, you need food, water and air. Providing your employees with a sufficient remuneration, bonuses and breaks during their workday enables them to meet some of these basic physiological needs. Health-care programs, medical insurance and paid sick leaves also assist your employees in meeting these needs.

Once these needs are fulfilled, people are motivated by safety needs. You can provide fulfillment of these needs for your employees by ensuring strict adherence to occupational safety rules and offering them some degree of job security.

Many of the benefits that companies offer, such as savings plans, stock purchase plans and profit sharing programs, also fulfill the safety needs of employees. Even outplacement services to assist employees who were made redundant can address the safety needs: these services ease the pain of the layoff.

As this need is fulfilled, people progress up the pyramid to be motivated by social needs or belongingness. These reflect the need for affiliation, socialization and the need to have friends. Your company’s social events provide opportunities for socialization. Corporate sponsorship of community events also provides an opportunity for employees to make friends while giving something back to the community.

As these needs are satiated, people are motivated by esteem needs. These needs involve gaining approval and status. You can help your employees fulfill these needs with recognition rewards such as plaques, trophies, and certificates.

And finally, the need for self-actualization – the need to reach your full potential – drives people’s behavior. In the words of the Armed Forces, this is «being all that you can be». Developing skills for your employees helps them to reach self-actualization. While the first four needs can be fulfilled, the need for self-actualization cannot be satiated. Once you move toward your potential, you raise the bar and strive for more.

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

Douglas McGregor proposed that managers use one of two different assumptions concerning people. His theory is called the Theory X and Theory Y view of managers, which reflects these two different sets of assumptions.

The Theory X view is the negative set of assumptions. The Theory X manager believes that people are lazy and must be forced to work because it does not come naturally to them.

The Theory Y holds that people will look for responsibility and that work comes naturally to people. This is seen as the positive assumption about people.

Generally, Theory Y manager will have more motivated employees. Sometimes, the Theory X manager can achieve results when used in the appropriate situations. But today’s workforce, as a rule, seeks more challenging jobs and an opportunity to participate in the decision-making process. This is closer to the assumptions of the Theory Y manager.

McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory

David McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory is also referred to as the Acquired Needs Theory. According to the theory developed in the 1970s, needs are developed or learned over time. McClelland suggested that there are three needs – for achievement, power, and affiliation – that are important to the workforce. While all three are present in everyone, one need is dominant.

People who have a dominant need for achievement are proactively seeking ways to improve the way things are done, like challenges and excel in competitive environment. An employee who has a dominant need for achievement should be provided with challenging jobs with lots of feedback on his or her progress.

The need for power is the need to control others. Those with a dominant need for power like to be in charge and enjoy jobs with status. You should allow such employees to participate in decisions that impact them and give them some control over their jobs.

The need for affiliation is the need to have close relationships with others and to be liked by people. Individuals with the dominant need for affiliation generally do not desire to be the leader because they want to be one of the group. They should be assigned to teams because they are motivated when working with others. You might also let them train new employees or act as mentors because this addresses more of their need for this interaction that is dominant within them.

Equity Theory

Equity Theory is a social comparison theory that was developed in 1963 by J. Stacey Adams. The underlying premise of this theory is that people will correct inequities:

I? I

O = O

The ratio of your inputs to outputs is compared to the ratio of another’s inputs to outputs. You can compare your ratio to other employees with comparable positions. You might also compare your ratio (especially with regard to output) to your organization’s pay policies or past experience or to a standard. Annual industry surveys can serve as the benchmark.

Inputs involve all that you bring to the job – your education, the hours you work, level of effort, and general performance level. The output portion of the equation is generally measured in terms of the salary and fringe benefits that you receive. In some cases this could be prestige, approval, and status.

Any inequities in the relationship will be corrected as soon as they are detected. The only variable that you can manipulate is your input. So if you believe that the relationship is not in balance and that the ratio of your inputs to outputs is greater than the ratio of the comparisons, you will work to bring the relationship back into equity by reducing your inputs – increasing your absenteeism or performing at lower levels.

You can correct inequities in a number of ways. You can make the correction by changing the perception of the inputs or outputs. You may somehow rationalize your perception of the inequity. You may choose to change the comparison person or standard. Or, you may remove yourself from the situation (such as quitting your job).

Expectancy Theory

Developed by Victor Vroom in the 1960s, Expectancy Theory proceeds from the assumption that behavior is based upon the expectation that this behavior will lead to a specific reward and that reward is valued.

According to expectancy theory, you must decide how hard you have to work to get an upcoming promotion. Then you must decide if you can work at that level (to get that promotion). The third link is deciding how much you value that reward (the promotion).

All three pieces of this equation determine your motivational level. You think of expectancy as the following equation:

M = E x V x I,

where M = Motivation; E = Expectancy; V = Valence; I = Instrumentality.

Expectancy is your view of whether your efforts will lead to the required level of performance to enable you to get the reward. Valence is how valued the reward is. Instrumentality is your view of the link between the performance level and the reward. That is, whether you believe that if you do deliver the required performance, you will get the valued reward. Because this is a multiplicative relationship, if anyone of these links is zero, motivation will be zero.

You must be clear about telling your employees what is expected of them. It is critical that you tie rewards to specific performance. You must also offer rewards that your employees will value. Critical in this process is the employee’s perception of his or her performance. Employees will become demotivated when their performance does not produce the valued outcome.

You must be especially careful about building trust. Your employees must know that if they perform at the required level, you will follow through with the desired reward. Your credibility becomes a key component in this theory.

Source: www.accel-team.com

Essential Vocabulary

1. performance n – зд. показатели (результаты) деятельности; исполнение

perform v – действовать, выполнять, достигать

2. driver n – зд. движущая сила, двигатель

drive v – двигать

3. job n – работа, дело, труд, задание, рабочее место

4. opportunity n – возможность

5. downsizing n – уменьшение в размерах (повышение эффективности компании за счет уменьшения числа сотрудников и продажи непрофильных предприятий)

6. employee n – сотрудник, занятый

employer n – работодатель

employment n – занятость

unemployment n – безработица

unemployed n – безработный

employ v – нанимать

7. workforce n – рабочая сила

8. command-and-controlmethods – командно-административные методы

9. environment n – окружающая среда (природная или деловая), обстановка

10. empowerment n – наделение полномочиями, властью

11. team n – команда

12. reward n – награда

reward v – награждать

13. diversity n – разнообразие (зд. рабочей силы)

diverse a – разнообразный

14. comprehensive a – всеобъемлющий, всесторонний, совокупный (в бухучете)

15. development n – развитие, разработка, совершенствование; проявка

develop v – развивать, разрабатывать, совершенствовать, проявлять

16. remuneration n – вознаграждение, оплата труда, зарплата

remunerate v – вознаграждать, оплачивать труд

17. bonus n – бонус, премия

18. medicalinsurance – медицинское страхование

19. sickleave – бюллетень

20. adherence (to) n – приверженность, соблюдение

adhere (to) v – придерживаться, соблюдать

21. occupationalsafety– производственная безопасность

22. jobsecurity – надежная занятость

23. stockpurchaseplans – поощрительные планы покупки акций компании ее сотрудниками по льготной цене

24. savingsplans – планы сбережений

25. profit-sharingprograms – программы участия в прибылях

26. outplacementservices – услуги по трудоустройству (помощь только что покинувшему компанию сотруднику в поиске новой работы)

27. redundancy n – увольнение работника в связи с сокращением рабочих мест

redundant a – уволенный работник

28. layoff n – увольнение сотрудников в связи с сокращением производства и спроса на продукцию

layoff v – увольнять сотрудников

29. affiliation n – членство, принадлежность

30. community n – община, сообщество

31. skill n – навык

skilled a – квалифицированный (рабочий)

32. assumption n – предположение; предпосылка; принятие ответственности

assume v – предполагать; создавать предпосылку; принимать ответственность

33. challenge n – вызов

challenge v – бросать вызов

challenging a – сложный, интересный

34. decision-makingprocess – процесс принятия решений

35. proactive a – предвосхищающий события

proactively adv – предвосхищая события

36. feedback n – обратная связь

37. mentor n – ментор, наставник

38.equity n – собственный капитал; обыкновенные акции; справедливость

39. input n – потребляемые ингредиенты; вход, ввод, вклад

40. output n – выпуск продукции; продукция, отдача, выход

41. benchmark n – база, ориентир, стандарт, эталон

42.benefit n – право, привилегия, льгота, польза, преимущество

beneficiary n – бенефициар

benefit v – получать привилегию, пользу, льготу, преимущество; выигрывать

beneficial a – полезный, льготный

fringebenefits – дополнительные льготы

43. absenteeism n – абсентеизм, прогул

absentee n – отсутствующий (на работе), прогульщик

44. expectancy n – ожидание, вероятность

expectation n – ожидание

expect v – ожидать

45.promotion n – продвижение (по службе или товара)

promote v – продвигать

46.credibility n – кредит доверия

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. What is motivation? 2. Do command-and-control methods of motivation work today? 3. What motivation theory captures all the complexity of motivation? 4. How does Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory explain what drives human behavior? 5. How did Maslow prioritize human needs? 6. What do companies do to meet the physiological needs of their employees? 7. How can safety needs be fulfilled? 8. What are social needs? 9. How can esteem needs be met? 10. Is it possible to satiate the need for self-actualization? 11. What are the key assumptions of Douglas McGregor’s theory? 12. What type of managers – X or Y – is more effective nowadays? 13. What is the essence of the Learned Needs Theory? 14. What is the best possible job for people with the dominant need for achievement, power and affiliation, respectively? 15. What is the premise of the Equity Theory? 16. How can people correct inequities? 17. What equation forms the basis of the Expectancy Theory? 18. What rewards should you offer to your employees within the framework of the Expectancy Theory? 19. What motivation theories can be effective in contemporary Russia?

Exercise 2. Describe how companies take care of their employees. Use the following terms.

medical insurance

life insurance

paid holidays

sick leaves

retirement programs (pension plans)

training and development programs

child care

recreational activities

transportation allowance

maternity/paternity leaves

credit union facilities

ESOP (Employee Stock Ownership Plans)

profit sharing

bonuses

relocation expenses

fringe benefits

wages and salaries

stock options

induction process

mentors

job security

grievance committee

outplacement services

severance pay

employment contract

cafeteria plans^[1]

Exercise 3. You are a journalist working for Business Week and you are to interview Frederick Herzberg who developed the Two-Factor Theory. Invent a dialogue between these two individuals using the following briefing materials.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Frederick Herzberg’ s theory is known as the motivator-hygiene theory. His basic premise is that dissatisfaction and satisfaction are not opposite ends of a single continuum. Rather, the opposite of dissatisfaction is no dissatisfaction, and the opposite of satisfaction is no satisfaction.

The way to move an individual from dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction is by utilizing hygienes. These are factors that are extrinsic to the work itself. Hygienes are factors concerning the environment within which the work is performed like the color of the walls, the temperature of the room, or the paving in the company parking lot.

Unfortunately, hygienes are not the factors that can move your employees toward satisfaction. These factors simply placate employees, but do nothing to truly motivate them. Before the real motivation can be addressed, employees must have sufficient hygienes so as not to be dissatisfied.

To move employees from no satisfaction to satisfaction, motivators must be used. These are the factors that are intrinsic to the work itself. Examples of motivators include more autonomy, opportunities for promotion, and delegation of responsibility.

Exercise 4. Discuss the following 10 commandments of motivation through human relations and create 10 commandments of your own.

1. Speak to people. There is nothing as nice as a cheerful word of greeting.

2. Smile to people. It takes seventy-two muscles to frown, only fourteen to smile.

3. Call people by name . The sweetest music to anyone’s ear is the sound of his or her own name.

4. Be friendly and helpful. If you want to have friends, be a friend.

5. Be cordial. Speak and act as if everything you do is a genuine pleasure.

6. Be genuinely interested in people. You can like almost everybody if you try.

7. Be generous with praise and cautious with criticism.

8. Be considerate of the feelings of others. There are usually three sides to a controversy: your side, the other fellow’s side, and the right side.

9. Be alert to giving service. What counts most in life is what we do for others.

10. Add to this a good sense of humor, a big dose of patience, and a dash of humility, and you will be rewarded many times.

Exercise 5*^[2]. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

Determining the Role of Money in Motivation

Motivation theories can provide you with the motivational…….. to pull in order to increase the motivation of your………….

People are more inclined to deliver………. that is minimally acceptable. Some even wonder today if Americans are still in search of excellence, or they are in search of mediocrity instead. In the past, the motivation technique was a scare tactic. «Do it or else…» was the refrain of the…………. manager. It no longer……… the desired results today, in the…….. of employee’s involvement in………. and………..

Motivation is a complex issue requiring an understanding of individuals. It is no longer answered with just money. In the past, a manager might have been able to raise employee’s……. and provide some………. to improve motivation. Simple material……. does not get the same mileage in today’s workplace.

In fact, money is not the prime motivation…….. any longer. Adam Smith suggested in 1776 that self-interest for monetary……. is the primary motivator of people. While some still…….. to this………, most researchers agree that……………. has become more important today.

Herzberg suggested that money is a…….. That is, money is……… to the work itself and does not really move people toward satisfaction. Instead, people are said to desire autonomy……… work, and more creative……..

The……… of money as a motivator is generally in what it can buy. Once basic… have been met, more money is not necessarily a primary motivator for people. There is also a symbolic meaning of money that can be the actual motivator rather than the money itself.

Terms:

rewards, salary, driver, value, adhere, job satisfaction, assumption, extrinsic, needs workforce, environment, command-and-control, delivers, decision-making, fringe benefits, remuneration, gain, hygiene, challenging, levers, performance, delegation of authority

Exercise 6. Translate into English.

Теория Z Уильяма Учи

Уильям Учи, профессор Калифорнийского университета, разработал в 1981 году теорию Z, которая сочетает в себе черты американского и японского управленческого стиля. В организации типа Z работники участвуют в процессе принятия решений и способны выполнять множество самых разнообразных производственных заданий. Такой подход, сходный с культурой японских компаний, служит важной движущей силой повышения производительности труда при одновременном уменьшении прогулов и текучести кадров. Теория Z подчеркивает значимость таких аспектов, как ротация работ, расширение навыков сотрудников, преимущество специалистов широкого профиля по сравнению с узкой специализацией, а также потребность в постоянном развитии и подготовке кадров.

По мнению Уильяма Учи, работники хотят построить дружеские взаимоотношения на основе сотрудничества с коллегами и работодателями. В рамках его теории работники нуждаются в поддержке со стороны компании и высоко ценят рабочую среду, в которой семья, культура, традиции и социальные институты имеют не менее важное значение, чем сама работа. У таких сотрудников очень высоко развито чувство порядка, дисциплины и моральное обязательство усердно трудиться. Наконец, в рамках теории Z предполагается, что работники будут трудиться с максимальной отдачей, если менеджмент будет их поддерживать и заботиться об их благосостоянии.

Важной предпосылкой данной теории является то, что менеджмент должен быть уверен в своих сотрудниках. Теория Z предполагает, что необходимо развивать такую рабочую силу, которая сохраняла бы преданность своей компании и предпочитала бы работать в ней всю жизнь. В таком случае, когда сотрудник дорастет до уровня старшего менеджмента, он будет досконально знать компанию и ее деятельность и сможет эффективно применять теорию Z к новым сотрудникам.

Lesson 2
Corporate Culture

Read and translate the text and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

How to Achieve Excellence by Managing the Culture in your Company

In recent years, corporate culture has been a topic widely discussed by managemement gurus offering their services to organizations desperate to improve their performance. Serious managers, naturally, question whether the focus on corporate culture is merely a passing fad, or if it indeed has a long-term beneficial effect on the way organizations are managed. Those who look for a quick fix for making organizations effective may be disappointed. We know that societal culture develops slowly and endures for a long time. Similarly, organizational culture needs to be nurtured and managed. Culture must be concerned with all aspects of management. In addition, an organization culture must also guide the relationships with certain stakeholders outside the enterprise, especially customers, but also suppliers, creditors, and even competitors who deserve an operating culture of fair play in the competitive market place.

Most managers today would probably agree that the effectiveness and efficiency of an organization are influenced by its culture. This means, in turn, that key managerial functions will be carried out differently in organizations with different cultures.

Although some management advocates would have us believe that the concepts of corporate culture represent the latest thinking in management theory, they are not. In 431 B.C., Pericles urged the Athenians, who were at war with the Spartans, to adhere to values underlying the culture – democracy, informality in communication, the importance of individual dignity, and promotion based on performance. Pericles realized that these values might mean victory or defeat. You will probably note that these values are not so different from those espoused by many U.S. companies.

As it relates to organizations, culture is the general pattern of behavior, shared beliefs and values that members have in common. Culture can be inferred from what people say, do, think, and how they behave within an organizational setting. It involves the learning and transmitting of knowledge, beliefs, and patterns of behavior over time. This also means that an organization culture is fairly stable and does not change quickly. It often sets the tone for the company and establishes implied rules for how people should behave.

Many of us have heard slogans that give us a general idea what the company stands for. For General Electric, it is «progress is our most important product». AT&T is proud of its «universal service». DuPont makes «better things for better living through chemistry». Delta Airlines describes its internal climate with the slogan «the Delta family feeling». Similarly, Sears wants to be known for its optimum price/quality ratio, Caterpillar for its 24-hour service, Polaroid for its innovation, Maytag for its reliability, and so on. Indeed, the orientation of these companies, often expressed in slogans, contributes to the successful conduct of their business. But slogans must be translated into managerial behavior.

Managers, and especially top executives, create the climate for their business. Their values influence the direction of the company. Values are a fairly permanent belief about what is appropriate and what is not that guides the actions and behavior of employees in fulfilling the organization’s aims. Values form an ideology that permeates everyday decisions and behavior.

In many successful companies, corporate leaders serve as role models, set the standards for performance, motivate employees, make the company special and are a symbol for the external environment. It was Edwin Land, the founder of Polaroid, who created a favorable organizational environment for R&D and innovation. It was Jim Treybig of Tandem in the Silicon Valley who emphasized that every person is a human being and deserves to be treated accordingly. It was William Proctor of Proctor&Gamble who ran the company with the slogan, «Do what is right». It was Theodore Vail of AT&T who addressed the needs of customers by focusing on service.

In a free-market economy businesses cannot exist without the goodwill of their customers. Yet in certain companies customers are seen as merely interrupting work. Clearly, the long-term success of such a company may be in jeopardy. By contrast, in companies with a strong customer-oriented culture, employees in all departments (not only those that are specially set up to handle customer complaints) listen carefully to the needs of the customers. After all, they are the reasons the company exists. In such companies, measurable customer-satisfaction objectives are set and frequently used for evaluating customer reactions. This may be done through formal surveys or, at times, top managers may contact key customers personally. When Ross Perot, the Texas billionaire who sold his computer company to General Motors, was on the GM board, he answered all customer complaints about cars, rather than sending form letters.

Focus on quality is one of the most important aspects of corporate culture. Too often we hear that what really counts is the bottom line. Of course, businesses can only exist in the long run by generating profit. Unfortunately, profit orientation too often means profit in the short run with little consideration for the long-term health of the enterprise. In the past some U.S. automakers neglected quality because it appeared cheaper to pay for warranty claims than to build quality into the products. The loss of future sales was often not recognized as a cost. In contrast, many Japanese car manufacturers have made quality the basis for long-term profit.

People respond to those things for which they get rewarded. Few rewards are usually given for quality. In a typical company, CEOs get rewarded for profit improvement – seldom for superior products and services. But quality pays in the long run as Japanese car, camera and electronics manufacturers have shown. In Japan, responsibility for quality and productivity is placed at the top. This, in turn, creates a culture that says: Our organization is fanatical about both productivity and quality.

Managers in effective organizations are characterized by action. This can only be done by top management’s commitment to breaking down rigid organization structures. It may begin with some symbolic actions such as eliminating reserved parking spaces for top-echelon managers. After all, is it not equally important that the first-line supervisor be on time to start the assembly line rather than circling the parking lot to find a space to park? Companies with a strong people-oriented culture believe that the dignity of all people is paramount. Whether a manager or a worker, all contribute toward a common goal; all have basic needs for being appreciated as persons; all have the desire to feel competent in carrying out their task, whatever it is.

While a clear mission statement and goals have the potential to motivate organizational members to excellence, the means to achieve these ends must never be compromised. Actions and behavior must be guided by adherence to company policy, must never violate any laws, and above all, must not be unethical. In ethical companies, integrity is the norm, not the exception. Ethics may be institutionalized through 1) company policy or a code of ethics, 2) a formally appointed ethics committee, and 3) the teaching of ethics in management development programs.

Thus, the intangible factor of the corporate culture can make a substantial contribution to strengthening the competitive position of a company, and improving the tangible indicator of profit that it is able to generate.

Source: Industrial Management, September-October 1989, pp. 28—32.

Essential Vocabulary

1. сorporate culture – корпоративная культура

2. focus n – фокус, сосредоточие, акцент

focus v – фокусироваться, сосредотачиваться, концентрироваться

3. stakeholder n – заинтересованное лицо

4. customer n – клиент

5. supplier n – поставщик

supply n, часто в plural – предложение; запас, припас; снабжение, поставка

supply v – поставлять, снабжать, доставлять, давать

6. competitor n – конкурент

competition n – конкуренция

competitiveness n – конкурентоспособность

compete v – конкурировать

competitive a – конкурентоспособный

7. fair play – честная игра, игра по правилам

8. effectiveness n – эффективность (общая)

effective a – эффективный

9. efficiency n – эффективность (удельная)

efficient a – эффективный

10. communication n – коммуникации, передача, сообщение, связь

communicate v – сообщать, передавать; общаться; доносить

11. value n – ценность, оценка (компании)

value n – ценить, оценивать

12. slogan n – лозунг, призыв, девиз

13. price/quality ratio – соотношение цена/качество

14. innovation n – инновация, нововведение, новаторство

innovator n – новатор, рационализатор

innovate v – вводить новшества, делать нововведения

innovative a – новаторский

15. contribution (to) n – вклад

contribute (to) v – вносить вклад

16. executive n – руководитель

executive n – исполнительный

17. founder n – основатель

found v – основывать

18. research and development (R&D) – исследования и разработки

19. goodwill n – добрая воля, деловая репутация; «гудвилл» (статья баланса)

20. complaint n – жалоба, иск; недовольство

complain v – жаловаться; подавать жалобу, иск

21. survey n – обозрение, осмотр, обзор, инспектирование

survey v – проводить осмотр, обзор, обозрение; инспектировать

22. bottom line – итоговая строка баланса или счета, финальная прибыль или убыток, окончательный результат, конечная цель

23. generate profit – генерировать прибыль

24. warranty n – гарантия (качества); поручительство, ручательство; условие

25. sales n. pl . – зд. стоимость продаж товаров компании за определенный период

26. cost n – затраты, издержки, расходы; цена, стоимость, себестоимость

27. Chief Executive Officer (CEO) – главный исполнительный директор

28. commitment n – обязательство; приверженность, преданность; совершение

commit (to) v – брать обязательства, совершать, поручать, вверять; подвергать

committed (to) a – преданный, приверженный

29. supervisor n – инспектор

supervision n – надзор, наблюдение, инспекция

supervise v – надзирать, наблюдать, инспектировать

30. assembly line – сборочная линия, конвейер

31. mission statement – декларация миссии компании

32. integrity n – целостность, полнота; порядочность

33. code n – код, кодекс, сборник правил

34. (in)tangible a – (не)материальный, (не)осязаемый

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. Does corporate culture influence the way organizations are managed? 2. Do efficiency and effectiveness of a company depend on corporate culture? 3. Does corporate culture affect the relations of a company with its stakeholders? 4. How would you define corporate culture? 5. Do slogans really give us a general idea of what the company stands for? 6. Who should create the internal environment in an organization? 7. What are the basic values of successful companies? 8. Is bottom line the only thing that really matters? 9. Are employees always rewarded for quality? 10. Why is it important for companies not to violate any laws and be ethical?

Exercise 2. The dictionary «Economics» gives the following definitions of the terms «effectiveness» and «efficiency»: «Effectiveness is the achievement of objectives. Efficiency is the achievement of the ends with the least amount of resources.» Make 4—6 sentences of your own using these words in order to emphasize the difference between them.

Examples: Sibneft was one of the most efficient oil companies in Russia demonstrating a rapid low-cost oil production growth.

Aeroflot has introduced an effective frequent flyer program.

Exercise 3*. According to the generally accepted definition, «Stakeholders are the people or institutions that are affected, or might be affected, by an organization’s activities. Likewise, stakeholders can, in return, affect the activities of that organization.»

The text identifies such stakeholders as customers, suppliers, creditors and competitors. What other stakeholders can you name?

Exercise 4. «Commitment» means «обязательство» and «приверженность, преданность чему-либо». Make 4—6 sentences of your own using the word «commitment» to emphasize its different meanings.

Examples: Gazprom has always met its gas export commitments to Western Europe.

Bosco di Ciliegi is known for its unwavering commitment to customer satisfaction.

Exercise 5. Study the Hofstede Cultural Orientation Model (1995) that classifies cultures based on where they fall on five continuums, and identify the culture of your company according to these categories:

1.Individual vs. Collective Orientation

The level at which behavior is appropriately regulated.

2.Power-Distance Orientation

The extent to which less powerful parties accept the existing distribution of power and the degree to which adherence to formal channels is maintained.

3.Uncertainty-Avoidance Orientation

The degree to which employees are threatened by uncertainty, and the relative importance to employees of rules, long-term employment and steady progression through well defined career ladders.

4.Dominant-Values Orientation

The nature of the dominant values – e.g., monetary focus, well-defined gender roles, formal structure – vs. concern for others, focus on quality of relationships and job satisfaction, and flexibility.

5.Short-Term vs. Long-Term Orientation

The time frame used: short-term (involving more inclination toward consumption) vs. long-term (involving preserving status-based relationships).

Exercise 6*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

Gore’s Corporate Culture.

How we work sets us apart. We encourage hands-on…………, involving those closest to a project in………… Teams organize around……… and leaders emerge.

Our……., Bill Gore created a flat lattice organization. There are no………. nor pre-determined…………. Instead, we communicate directly with each other and are………….. to follow members of our……………

How does all this happen?……… (not employees) are hired for general work areas. With the guidance of their………… (not bosses) and a growing understanding of opportunities and team…………., associates commit to projects that match their………. All of this takes place in an……….. that combines freedom with cooperation and autonomy with synergy.

Everyone can quickly earn the……….. to define and……..projects. Sponsors help associates chart a course in the organization that will offer personal fulfillment while maximizing their………. to the enterprise. Leaders may be………., but are defined by ‘follower ship’. More often, leaders……… naturally by demonstrating special knowledge, skill, or experience that advances a business objective.

Associates………. to four basic guiding principles articulated by Bill Gore:

……… to each other and everyone with whom we come in contact

Freedom to encourage, help, and allow other associates to grow in knowledge, skill, and………..

The ability to make one’s own………. and keep them

Consultation with other associates before undertaking actions that could impact the…….. of the company.

Source: www.gore.com

Terms:

commitments, sponsors, channels of communication, drive, credibility, decision making, environment, skills, image, appointed, opportunities, adhere, multi-disciplined teams, associates, objectives, contribution, fairness, scope of responsibility, founder, emerge, innovation, accountable, chains of command

Exercise 7. Translate into English.

Корпоративная культура ВМЗ.

Выксунский металлургический завод – динамично растущая, высокоэффективная, социально ориентированная компания, стремящаяся стать ведущей компанией в мире по производству труб и железнодорожных колес.

Наша продукция – это результат постоянных инноваций и приверженности качеству. Она соответствует самым высоким требованиям наших потребителей – ведущих энергетических, транспортных и промышленных компаний. Используя нашу продукцию, они могут качественно, с минимальными издержками, экологически чисто и безопасно транспортировать людей и материалы на любые расстояния. Без нашей продукции невозможно создание и эксплуатация глобальных и локальных энергетических и транспортных коммуникаций.

ВМЗ – финансово устойчивая компания, ориентируется на постоянную работу по повышению эффективности операционной деятельности и инвестиций. Стабильность позволяет ВМЗ строить отношения со своими клиентами и поставщиками на долгосрочной основе.

Мы развиваем и поощряем профессионализм и инициативу наших сотрудников и строим наш бизнес на передовых методах управления.

Наши ценности:

Интересы клиентов – наш приоритет

Опережать время – наше кредо

Высококачественная продукция – наш принцип

Надежные партнеры – наша опора

Повышение уровня жизни работников – наше правило

Содействие развитию регионов – наша позиция

Сплоченная команда профессионалов – наш капитал

Источник: www.vmz.ru

Lesson 3
Program Management

Read and translate the text and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

How Ford Hit the Bull’s-eye with Taurus

A team approach borrowed from Japan has produced the hottest US car in years

It’s been a long time since a car built in Detroit has drawn such rave reviews. But there’s no doubt about it: Ford Motor Co.’s new Taurus and its sister, the Mercury Sable, are four-star successes. Customers are snapping them up faster than the company can turn them out. The two cars are Ford’s hottest sellers since Lee Iacocca’s Mustang took the auto world by storm in the mid-1960s.

For Detroit, Ford’s success may herald a turning point. It’s true that Detroit still suffers from a perception of poor quality and a sense that it’s out of step with the customer. That’s why the Big Three continue to lose market share to imports from Japan and Europe. But Taurus and Sable demonstrate that the former American competitive edge is not completely lost. U.S. carmakers can still build a machine that excites the average American driver.

How did Ford pull it off? Largely, by stealing a page from the Japanese. It studied customer wants and needs like never before, made quality the top priority, and streamlined its operations and organisation. Top management is so pleased with the result that the Taurus approach will be incorporated in all future development programs.

Radical Steps. The Taurus-Sable project was conceived in the bleak days of 1980, when Detroit was deep in recession. Ford’s executives finally realized that fuel economy was not the only reason consumers were choosing imports. «It was painfully obvious that we weren’t competitive with the rest of the world in quality,» says John Manoogian, who then was Ford’s chief of quality. «It became our number 1 priority.» Adds Lewis Veraldi, who headed the Taurus-Sable program: «We decided we had better do something far-reaching – or go out of business.»

Taurus and Sable were a huge gamble, indeed. When the automaker realised it needed to take radical steps to lure drivers back into the American fold, it decided that its new cars would replace the company’s best-selling models, Ford LTD and Mercury Marquis. To make sure Taurus and Sable would succeed, Ford invested $3 billion – an unprecedented amount for a new-car project.

The first step was to throw out Ford’s traditional organisational structures and create Veraldi’s group, christened Team Taurus. Normally, the five-year process of creating a new automobile is sequential. Product planners come up with a general concept. Next, a design team gives it form. Their work is handed over to engineering, which develops the specifications that are passed on to manufacturing and suppliers. Each unit works in isolation, there is little communication, and no one has overall project responsibility.

Turning the Tables. Team Taurus took a «program management» approach. Representatives from all the various units – planning, design, engineering, and manufacturing – worked together as a group. Top management delegated final responsibility for the vehicle to Team Taurus. Because all the usually disjointed groups were intimately involved from the start, problems were resolved early on, before they caused a crisis.

Ford methodically set out to identify the world’s best-designed and engineered automotive features, so that as many as possible could be incorporated in Taurus-Sable. Ford engineers turned the tables on the Japanese and did some «reverse engineering» of their own – to learn how the parts were assembled as well as how they were designed.

The company bought a Honda Accord and a Toyota Corolla and «tore them down layer by layer, looking for things we could copy or make better,» Veraldi says. All told, engineers combed over 50 comparable midsize cars. They found that the Audi 5000 had the best accelerator-pedal feel. The award for the best tire and jack storage went to the BMW 528e. Of the 400 such «best in class» features, Ford claims that 80% are met or exceeded in Taurus-Sable.

At the same time, to determine the customers’ preferences, Ford launched its largest series of market studies ever. That led to features such as a net in the trunk that holds grocery bags upright and oil dipsticks painted a bright yellow for fast identification. «Little things like that mean a lot to people,» notes Veraldi.

Worker Input. Meanwhile, a five-member «ergonomics group» spent two years scientifically studying ways to make the cars comfortable and easy to operate. They took seats from 12 different cars, stuck them into a Crown Victoria and conducted driving tests with a big sample of male and female drivers in all age groups who were then quizzed on what they liked and did not like. The best elements were combined to create the Taurus-Sable seats. Similarly, dashboard instruments and controls were tested to determine ease of use. People were timed pushing buttons, flipping switches, and pulling levers. It turned out that the quickest and most comfortable way to turn on the headlights was to turn a large round dial mounted on the left side of the steering column. That’s how you do it in the new Fords.

Ford also made some distinctly un-Detroit changes in production. It asked assembly-line workers for their advice even before the car was designed, and many of the suggestions that flooded in were used. For example, workers complained that they had trouble installing car doors because the body panels were formed in too many different pieces – up to eight to a side. So designers reduced the number of panels to just two. One employee suggested that all bolts have the same-size head. That way, workers wouldn’t have to grapple with different wrenches. The change was made. «In the past we hired people for their arms and their legs,» says Manoogian. «But we weren’t smart enough to make use of their brains.»

The Team Approach to Product Development

Bulging Backlog. Ford pulled suppliers into the effort too. Typically, an automaker turns to its suppliers almost as an afterthought. Only when a car’s design has been completed does the manufacturer send out specifications for parts and solicit bids in search of the lowest cost. The companies that are chosen keep the business only until a lower price comes along. Team Taurus, on the other hand, signed long-term contracts with contractors and invited them to participate in product planning. «We never had the supplier input we had on this car,» says Veraldi. «Now we’ll never do it any other way.»

Taurus and Sable have not been completely free of problems. There have already been recalls to correct troubles with the side windows in station wagons and with the clutch in some four-cylinder models. As for overall reliability, it will be a year or two before an accurate track record on repairs emerges.

Still, Ford’s bet on Taurus-Sable is paying off – handsomely. With bare-bones models starting at $10,200, more than 130,000 of the midsize sedans and station wagons have been delivered so far, and Ford has a backlog of orders for 100,000 more. Elated dealers say that customers – some of whom haven’t set foot in a domestic producer’s showroom for years – are content to wait patiently for two months or more to drive away with a Taurus or Sable.

In fact, transplanting many Japanese principles worked so well for Team Taurus that Ford decided to apply management-by-teamwork across the board. It promoted Veraldi to vice-president for car-programs management and gave him the job of spreading the message throughout the company. Ford, it seems, isn’t too haughty to say arigato gozaimasu – thank you very much.

Source: Business Week, June 30, 1986, p. 69—70.

Essential Vocabulary

1. perception n – восприятие

perceive v – воспринимать

perceived a – воспринимаемый

2. competitive edge – конкурентное преимущество

3. carmaker (automaker) n – автомобилестроитель

4. streamline v – рационализировать, оптимизировать

5. recession n – рецессия, снижение уровня деловой активности

6. consumer n – потребитель

consumption n – потребление

consume v – потреблять

7. fuel n – топливо

8. investment n – инвестиция, капиталовложение

investor n – инвестор

invest v – инвестировать

9. manufacturer n – производитель, изготовитель, промышленник

manufacture v – производить, изготавливать, выпускать; перерабатывать (сырье)

manufacturing a – промышленный, производственный

10. engineer n – инженер, конструктор

engineering n – инжиниринг

engineer v – проектировать; создавать, сооружать

engineering a – прикладной, технический, инженерный

11. unit n – часть, доля, единица; подразделение компании; набор

12. program management – программное управление

13. delegate responsibility – делегировать ответственность

14. vehicle n – перевозочное средство; средство выражения и распространения; проводник

15. customers’ preferences – предпочтения клиентов

16. launch n – запуск (продукции, проекта)

launch v – запускать

17. sample n – образец (товара), выборка, проба (напр. грунта)

sample v – пробовать, испытывать, отбирать образцы или пробы

18. age group – возрастная группа

19. advice n – совет, консультация; авизо, мнение

advisor n – советник, консультант

advise v – консультировать

advisory a – совещательный, консультативный

20. backlog n – задолженность, просроченная работа; портфель заказов

21. solicitor n – адвокат, поверенный

solicit v – ходатайствовать, просить; навязывать (товар, услуги)

22. bid n – предложение

bidder n – покупатель; лицо, предлагающее цену; участник торгов

bid v – предлагать (цену), участвовать в торгах

23. contractor n – подрядчик

24. recall n – призыв ранее уволенных работников вернуться на работу; отзыв товара (по качеству)

recall v – призывать, отзывать

25.track record – послужной список; предыстория, прошлые результаты

26. delivery n– поставка

deliverables n – результаты (осязаемые)

deliver v – поставлять

27. domestic a – внутренний; национальный

28. showroom n – салон, демонстрационный зал

29. across-the-board – повсеместный, тотальный, включающий все категории и классы

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. Why were the Big Three losing market share to imports from Japan and Europe? 2. What was the situation in Detroit when the Taurus project was launched? 3. What was the traditional approach of the American carmakers to creating a new automobile? 4. What are the key characteristics of the «program management» approach? 5. How did Ford identify the world’s best-designed and engineered automotive features? 6. What were the results of the market studies conducted by Ford? 7. What was the input of the «ergonomics group»? 8. How were workers involved in the design process? 9. What was the role of suppliers? 10. Did Ford successfully transplant the Japanese management principles?

Exercise 2*. Which of the following statements are not correct and why?

1. Taurus and Sable manufactured by Ford were huge successes. 2. Detroit suffered from a perception of poor quality and that’s why the Big Three were losing market share to imports from Japan and Europe. 3. Ford executives understood that fuel economy was the reason why consumers were choosing imports. 4. To make sure Taurus and Sable would succeed, Ford invested $3 billion, which was the usual amount of money needed to develop a new car. 5. Normally, the five-year process of creating a new automobile is sequential. 6. With the sequential approach, different units work in close cooperation and are in constant communication with each other. 7. The final responsibility for the vehicle was delegated to Team Taurus. 8. To determine the customers’ preferences, Ford launched its largest series of market studies ever. 9. Detroit carmakers always asked assembly-line workers for their advice. 10. The American automakers usually involved their suppliers in the design process. 11. The Japanese principles were successfully applied in the Taurus project.

Exercise 3. Make 2—4 sentences using the term «track record».

Example: Aeroflot has a good track record in terms of flight safety, but this fact is not well known to its customers.

Oleg Deripaska, head of RUSAL, has an impressive track record of arranging successful mergers and acquisitions that turned his company into the world’s biggest aluminum producer.

Exercise 4. In economic context, «domestic» means «национальный, внутренний». Make 2 sentences with each of the following expressions:

domestic market

domestic producer

domestic prices

Exercise 5*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

Getting Customers to Love You

In 1984, General Motors shrank the Cadillac two feet and sales declined, forcing the dismayed…….. to rethink the way it…… cars. Instead of interviewing car buyers only at the start of………….. met over three years with five groups, each composed of 500 owners of Cadillacs and other models, to discuss design ideas. General Motors literally placed these people behind the wheel of prototypes, letting them fiddle with switches and knobs on the instrument panel, door handles, and seat belts while…….. sat in back and took notes.

The result: The new De Ville and Fleetwood cruised into……. with subtle tail fins, nine extra inches, and fender skirts – all reminiscent of the opulent post-war automobiles. As a result…….. quickly increased. The troubles and the comeback taught the company a very tough lesson. GM says, «We learned to….. on the consumer.»

Many companies that once led in technology must now hang on to…….. by carefully tailoring their products to customer needs and……… quickly. Says Du Pont Chairman Richard Heckert: «As the world becomes more and more………., you have to sharpen all your tools. Knowing what’s on the customer’s mind is the most important thing we can do.» It is also cheaper than finding new buyers. Studies by Forum Corp., a Boston-based consulting firm, show that keeping a…….. typically costs only one-fifth as much as acquiring a new one.

Techsonic Industries in Alabama, which manufactures Hummingbird depth finders, keeps its customers…….. even though some 20 Japanese……. make technologically……… products. Depth finders are electronic devices that fishermen use to measure the water beneath the boat and track their prey. Techsonic had nine new-product failures in a row before 1985, when Chairman James Balckom…….. 25 groups of sportsmen across the U.S. and discovered that they wanted a gauge that could be read in bright sunlight.

«The customer literally developed a product for us,» Balkcom says. In the year after the $ 250 depth finder was……., Techsonic’s sales tripled. The company has 40% of the U.S. market for depth finders, and its motto – not surprisingly – is, «The……of any product or service is what the customer says it is».

Source: Fortune, 1990, June 25 (excerpts)

Terms:

interviewed, delivering, manufacturer, competitive, loyal, quality, engineers, development, customer, showrooms, designs, sales, market share, competitors, focus, innovative, launched, planners

Exercise 6. Translate into English.

Когда уволенный из «Форда» Ли Якокка пришел в «Крайслер» на должность президента, компания находилась на грани банкротства. «Крайслер» обладал завидным послужным списком в области исследований и разработок, хорошей дилерской сетью и первоклассными конструкторами. Однако Ли Якокка быстро выяснил, что компания не функционировала как целостный организм. Каждое подразделение работало в полной изоляции, не поддерживая никакого общения с коллегами. В концерне было 35 вице-президентов, которые ничего не слышали о делегировании ответственности. Корпоративная структура была совершенно не рациональна – сбыт и производство автомобилей находилось в ведении одного вице-президента. При этом производственники выпускали автомобили, не интересуясь мнением сбытовиков, просто надеясь, что их кто-нибудь купит.

В компании фактически отсутствовала целостная система финансового контроля. Никто в корпорации не имел представления о том, как составляются финансовые планы и проекты. Руководство было ориентировано на краткосрочные прибыли, а не на долгосрочное процветание компании. Вместо того чтобы пользоваться своим конкурентным преимуществом – сильными инженерными и дизайнерскими кадрами, – когда прибыли стали падать, «Крайслер» начал сокращать издержки за счет снижения инвестиций в исследования и разработки.

Качество автомобилей было неприемлемым, клиенты засыпали компанию жалобами и множество автомобилей возвращали дилерам для ремонта. Доля автомобильного рынка США, принадлежащая «Крайслер», постоянно уменьшалась, а уровень верности клиентов ее автомобилям был самым низким среди «Большой тройки». Потребители воспринимали ее бренд как «скучный и чопорный». Моральный дух сотрудников «Крайслер», которые не имели представления о командной работе, также оставлял желать лучшего. (Продолжение см. в уроке 5.)

Lesson 4
Japanese Management Principles

Read and translate the text and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

From JIT to Lean Manufacturing

The History of Just in Time

Around 1980 we were all just getting used to the concepts of Material Requirements Planning (MRP) and Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRPII) with their dependence on complex computer packages when we began to hear of manufacturers in Japan carrying no stock and giving 100% customer service without any of this MRP sophistication.

Japanese car manufacturers ensured that every steering column was assembled and fed onto a production line just as the car into which it was to be fitted rolled up at that particular stage. This was all managed by something called a kanban which meant «tag» and was the mechanism by which the assembly line told the feeder areas that they wanted another component. The first visitors to Japan came back to tell us that the kanban replaced MRP and was the key to Japanese success.

In time, we learned that the kanban was the last improvement step of many, not the first. The conceptual goals of minimised lead times and inventories rated above all else. The Japanese aim was having everything only when required and only in the quantity required – in other words, just-in-time (JIT).

We then learned that Toyota led the way in the development of the Japanese approach. We heard of something called the Toyota Production System which was the model for all that had happened in Japanese manufacturing. We heard of Taiichi Ohno, the production engineer responsible for this breakthrough.

The list below highlights what our Japanese counterparts had done.

1. Batch Quantities

Making something in large batches has several negative effects. The first thing which Westerners recognised was that stock levels are partly a function of order sizes. We had a formula for economic batch sizing in which the cost of set-up was offset against the cost of holding the stock. Our theoretical average stock level was half the order quantity + whatever element of safety stock we had built into our plans so reducing the order size would reduce our average stock.

There were, however, other considerations. A piece of plant cannot be immediately responsive to all demands upon it if it makes parts in greater quantities than are required at the time. Responsiveness, and hence service to our customers (whether they be external or the subsequent operations within our own plant) requires that we manufacture components in small batches.

We knew that smooth workloads make management of the manufacturing process far easier and had established smooth finished product plans with the adoption of Master Production Scheduling. However, no matter how smooth our final assembly plans, we still had lumpiness elsewhere.

The major contributor to parts being made in large batches is, of course, set-up times. Shigeo Shingo, a quality consultant hired by Toyota, had set about effectively eliminating set-ups. The accounting conventions that led Western businesses to make significant quantities of parts that may not be used were also shown to be ludicrous.

2. Safety Stocks / Quality

A major element of Western manufacturing’s inventory was that which we held in case of problems. We held safety stocks to allow us to continue manufacturing should some of the components or raw materials in our stores be found to be defective.

Ohno and his colleagues, ironically, had listened to the American quality gurus, W. Edwards Deming and Joseph Juran, who had advised Japanese industry as it recovered after World War II. Among the key concepts learned by the Japanese and neglected for many years in the West were:

Deming’s teaching that we cannot inspect quality in a product but must build it into the manufacturing process.

Juran’s definition of the internal customer. If we each give service to our internal customer then we will ultimately take care of the end customer.

By applying these teachings and aggressively eliminating all sources of non-compliance the Japanese moved quality onto a completely different plane. Where the West continued to measure percentage defect rates our competitors were working in parts per million.

As well as addressing the manufacturing processes, we learned that the JIT approach considered other contributors to improved quality. Is the component designed in such a way as to make it easy to produce or can we simplify it and reduce the chances of a defect? We began to think of «design for manufacture» and combining the previously separate functions of design engineering and production engineering.

We heard about things called «quality circles» where people in different areas of the business came together to investigate problems and work as a team to solve them – rather than follow our own approach of each area attempting to blame another. Perhaps most disturbingly we heard that inspectors were a thing of the past. All had now been trained as quality engineers and were in fact working as process improvement specialists so that their old function was no longer required.

3. Supplier Partnerships

Perhaps the most challenging concept for many companies was that of working with suppliers as partners. Buyers who spent their lives playing one supplier off against others and switching from one to another to save pennies heard that their Japanese counterparts single-sourced in nearly all cases. What is more, large corporations such as Toyota sent out their own specialists in manufacturing improvement to help their suppliers. Where savings were identified then benefits would be shared amicably.

The most readily-visible consequence of this was better service from the company’s suppliers. If we were working together on agreed plans and the supplier could arrange activities based around a long-term relationships then we might avoid a major problem that plagued us in the West – that just as we played off suppliers against each other, they played off their customers. They never knew what demand they may get so they sought more orders than they could, in reality, fulfil. They then reacted to screams and shortages and tried not to fall out too often with each customer. All of this meant all customers holding safety stock to cope with the repeated failures.

Partnership approach brought other benefits – if we worked as true partners then we would not need to spend so much effort in continuously expediting. We could leave behind this ludicrous situation where we had to keep asking «is that order going to be on time?». We could also expect our suppliers to warn us of problems in advance. If their key piece of plant broke down and they told us now of the impact this might have in a week or two, then we could set our own plans to work around the problem.

4. The Elimination of Variety

Variety was recognised for its cost in that it complicated the manufacturing process. A sunroof on every Toyota Corolla was not only a marketing trick but a practical manufacturing improvement as having to make two different types of roof and two different types of headlining introduced potential problems.

5. Shortened Cycle Times

One point which we all understood was that our overall cycle times for our product dictated the level of work-in-progress (WIP). If we have an average lead time of four weeks for the components going through our welding department, then we will have an average WIP level of four weeks’ worth of production.

The Japanese had addressed this in a number of ways, primarily in a fundamental redesign of factory layout and process flow. We learned that rather than have one area of the plant for presses, another full of lathes, another drills, and so on, they had switched to «focussed factories» where each area of the plant made a particular type of component. The unit making drive shafts had saws, followed by milling, turning, drilling and so on. These focussed units then brought the opportunity for multi-skilling and teamwork which helped to provide for productivity improvements – as well as significantly reducing the movement of materials through the factory.

6. «Pull»

The kanban was then the final piece in the jigsaw. One of the major benefits of kanban is that it is very simple; it is also quite visible to all concerned and its logic is clear. It worked when all the issues preventing immediate response had been addressed and was the mechanism by which a build up of stock could be prevented. The yellow card attached to the container, or the floor space between two work benches, was the signal to initiate production of more of the item. If the assembly line stopped, then the subassemblies ceased being used and no more signals were generated. This contrasted markedly with the position in Western plants where an assembly line problem quickly led to a massive pile-up of inventory with items being mislaid and damaged.

Culture

Few of the Japanese ideas for change in manufacturing were totally new. Frederick Taylor and Henry Ford had promoted many of them at the start of the 20th century. Where the Japanese did have much to teach us was in the total commitment of everybody to these new ways of working. We began to hear of stock levels being reduced to the point that every slightest problem immediately caused a major hold up, and this was actually treated as a reason for celebration. «A problem is a pearl, «we heard, meaning that finding a problem in a process was a good thing. Why? Because the problem was there and we didn’t know about it, but now we do, so we can fix it.

The Move to Lean from JIT

As we understood more of JIT we learned that stock levels and lead times were not the only targets of the Toyota Production System and its followers in Japanese industry. We began to realise that our aim must be to eliminate waste in all its forms. «What is waste?» we asked ourselves, and turned to people like Mr Ohno and Mr Shingo and were told that «waste is anything which does not add value.»

We knew already of some wastes – for example, inspection adds no value. Why not just get the process right and then we needn’t carry out this activity? Similarly, why expedite our suppliers when, if we had chosen good partners and had a true partnership with them, this would not be needed? Why move items to a dedicated packing area if we could perform the packing in tandem with the assembly operation for the product and eliminate this movement? Why move parts from one end of a factory to another, and back again, if a little more thought in laying out the plant differently might take out this activity?

So, JIT became Lean when it was recognised that parts arriving only when required and only in the quantities required is only a part of the story.

Source: www.training-management.info, Ian Henderson

Essential Vocabulary

1. Material Requirements Planning – планирование потребности в материалах

2. Manufacturing Resource Planning – планирование производственных ресурсов

3. stock n – акция; товарные запасы

4. sophistication n – искушенность, изощренность, сложность

sophisticated a – искушенный, изощренный, сложный

5. lead time – время между размещением заказа и получением материалов от поставщика; время между началом производственного процесса и изготовлением первого изделия или всей партии

6. inventory n – запасы

7. just-in-time (JIT) – система «точно в срок»

8. breakthrough n – прорыв

9. highlight n – центр внимания, основной момент

highlight v – освещать, выдвигать на первый план

10. counterpart n – двойник, аналог, копия, дубликат; противная сторона

11. batch n – партия, группа

12. order n – приказ, распоряжение; заказ

order v – приказывать, распоряжаться; заказывать

13. set-up n – установка, наладка, система

set up v – устанавливать, налаживать

14. offset n – зачет, компенсация, возмещение

offset v – зачитывать, компенсировать, возмещать

15. workload n – рабочая нагрузка

16. Master Production Scheduling – главный план-график производства

17. accounting n – бухгалтерский учет

accounting a – бухгалтерский

18. accounting conventions – учетные правила

19. compliance n – согласие, соответствие правилам, соблюдение (законов, правил)

comply (with) v – соглашаться, соответствовать, соблюдать

20. quality circles – кружки качества

21. demand n – спрос, требование, потребность, нужда

demand v – требовать

demanding a – требовательный, сложный

22. failure n – неудача, провал, банкротство; отказ (в работе), повреждение, срыв, авария

fail v – потерпеть неудачу, провалиться, обанкротиться; отказать

23. expediting n – связь с поставщиками, время исполнения (время для розыска и выполнения потерянного или неправильно направленного заказа)

expeditor n – диспетчер, экспедитор

expedite v – ускорять

24. work-in-progress (WIP) – незавершенное производство, полуфабрикаты

25. cycle time – время рабочего цикла

26. layout n – схема расположения, компоновка, планировка, чертеж

lay out v – располагать, размещать; выделять средства

27. waste n – отходы, потери; расточительство, перерасход

waste v – терять, тратить попусту, расточать

28. dedication n – посвящение, преданность, приверженность

dedicate v – посвящать

dedicated a – посвященный, приверженный, преданный

29. lean manufacturing – рациональное производство

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. What were the news from Japan that amazed the US manufactureres and scholars around 1980? 2. What was the company that pioneered the development of the Japanese manufacturing principles? 3. Why did the US companies manufacture components and parts in large batches? 4. Why did the US companies hold safety stocks? 5. What were the ideas of the US quality gurus that the Japanese successfully applied? 6. What other contributors to improved quality did the JIT approach consider? 7. What was the underlying principle of the quality circles? 8. Why were partnership relations with suppliers so important? 9. Why does it make economic sense to eliminate variety? 10. How did the Japanese shorten cycle times? 11. What was the basic idea of kanban? 12. Why were the Japanese companies happy when they discovered some problem in a process? 13. What is the key premise of the Lean Manufacturing?

Exercise 2. An American car manufacturer hired a Japanese consultant to help enhance its competitiveness and cut costs. The advisor suggested applying some of the Japanese manufacturing principles. Invent a dialogue between the US vice-president for production and the foreign consultant. Use the following terms.

JIT

kanban

batch size

safety stocks

long-term partnership relations with suppliers

elimination of variety

shorter cycle-times

quality circles

elimination of waste

problem-solving

lean manufacturing

commitment to excellence

Exercise 3. Compare the American and Japanese management principles along the following lines.

Exercise 4*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

The Characteristics of the Japanese Approach to Business

The system of…….. in the large organizations is called Nenko Seido. This means:

– guaranteed employment until……… at 55;

– promotion and……….. by seniority;

– an internal labor market meaning………. from within the company;

– extensive…….. with an emphasis on long-term behavior, attitudes and performance;

– extensive……… package, which is regarded as a right and incorporates the needs of the workers’ family;

– pay which starts off low, but rises dramatically with……….

Nenko workers in Japan are the privileged………. This system only applies to male……., and there are many smaller non– Nenko organizations, which service and supply their big brothers. The role of the non– Nenko organizations in the economy is to provide the……….. and lower………, achieved by lower wages, absence of job security, pensions, sick leaves, welfare benefits and bonuses.

The second distinctive characteristic of Japanese business is the fundamental importance of the group. Work is divided and allocated to groups, not individuals. The groups operate as specialists in dealing with………, but within the team the worker is regarded as a………… who will……… between jobs………. in company practices, rather than acquiring a specific technical skill.

The third feature, which is typical of Japanese corporation, is a very tight centralized control based on…………, which are linked to detailed planning. Also stringently controlled from the center is the……….. of trainee managers, who will ultimately be trusted to carry the company forward into the future.

Control is also indicative throughout the entire organization, particularly at an………… when applied to quality and technical……….. The concept of total quality management means a………. to a continuous improvement program and a strong…… on efficiency achieved by investment in the most modern plant and machinery available.

Managers adopt………. style of leadership and supervision. The manager will be the representative of the group as well as a technical…….. Despite the………. role that the individual plays to the group, consultation and consensus are seen as vital before decisions are made and action taken. There is much interaction and evolution in the……….. of new ideas and directions. Slow……… and tolerance of operating in ambiguous situations is normal. This is the direct opposite to what might be found in some western organizations where direct and decisive action taken by individual leaders operating without consultation and consensus is the norm.

The above characteristics can exist in the form they do because there is a strong corporate culture in every Japanese organization. This will be unique to the individual organization, but it is firmly………. in the culture and history of Japanese society as a whole. Key………. are obligation, duty, loyalty, cooperation and commitment to the company regarding it as the family to which the individual is bound.

Source: Corporate Strategy Study Guide, IFA Services Ltd., 2004.

Terms:

embedded, focus, recruitment, development, trouble shooter, subordiante, employment, operational level, rotate, remuneration, key performance indicators, promotions, decision making, efficiency, appraisal, generalist, welfare, seniority, minority, staff, flexibility, operating costs, tasks, training, commitment, hands-on, values, retirement

Exercise 5. Translate into English.

В поисках качества

В то время как американские менеджеры всегда говорили о том, что они «верят» в качество, что они «за» качество и всегда «боролись» за качество, большинство из них начинает понимать, что они ориентировались в основном на достижение некоего приемлемого уровня качества.

Несмотря на лозунги и призывы, качество пока еще не стало для американцев первоочередной задачей. Большинство руководителей компаний, управляющих, правительственных чиновников и экономических стратегов пока не думают о проблемах качества постоянно и ежедневно.

Главное в управлении качеством – не контроль, а бездефектная работа

Высокое качество обеспечивается главным образом путем налаживания бездефектного производства, а не через контроль уже готовой продукции. Основная идея такого подхода состоит в том, чтобы все усилия направить на ликвидацию самой возможности появления брака в процессе производства и сборки. В результате возможные дефекты устраняются еще на промежуточных этапах, а не в готовом изделии. В американских компаниях такой подход не получил пока массового распространения. Во многих случаях непроизводительная работа по проверке качества и устранению дефектов, выпуску новых деталей взамен бракованных отвлекает от 15 до 40% производственных мощностей предприятия. Причем затраты на эти работы составляют от 20 до 40% на каждый доллар продаж.

Одним из подходов, который дает возможность решить эти проблемы, является разработанная японцами система организации производства, получившая название «точно в срок».

Базовая идея этой системы весьма проста. Материалы и детали должны поступать на каждое рабочее место по соответствующим запросам точно в тот момент, когда в них возникает необходимость, а не храниться в больших количествах возле каждого рабочего места.

Главная цель такой системы состоит в постоянном совершенствовании процесса производства, ликвидации всех возможных потерь: времени, материалов и т. п.

В настоящее время сотни американских компаний с успехом применяют эту систему на практике – от «Кэмпбелл» и «Уорнер Ламберт» до «Моторолы» и «Интел». Например, применение этой системы в компании «Харлей энд Дэвидсон» позволило высвободить 22 млн долл., которые ранее были фиксированы в материальных запасах.

Использование такой системы позволяет также резко сократить расходы на аппарат управления, обнаруживать дефекты в ходе производства и устранять их сразу же на месте, обеспечить работу всех подразделений при минимальных затратах.

Конечно, внедрение такой системы требует четко отлаженного механизма и ответственности каждого работника на своем рабочем месте. Необходимо также преодолеть психологическое сопротивление менеджеров, которые не привыкли работать без страховых заделов и запасов.

Источник: выдержка из Грейсон Джексон К. младший, О’Делл Карла; «Американский менеджмент на пороге XXI века», http://ek.–lit.agava.ru

Lesson 5
Great Managers

Read and translate the text and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

How Jack Welch Ran GE

If leadership is an art, then Welch has proved himself a master painter. Few have personified corporate leadership more dramatically. Fewer still have so consistently delivered on the results of that leadership. «The two greatest corporate leaders of the 20th century are Alfred Sloan of General Motors and Jack Welch of GE,» says Noel Tichy, a University of Michigan management professor. «And Welch would be the greater of the two because he set a new, contemporary paradigm for the corporation that is the model for the 21st century.»

It is a model that has delivered extraordinary growth, increasing the market value of GE from $12 billion in 1981 to about $280 billion in 2000. No one, not Microsoft’s William Gates, not Walt Disney’s Michael Eisner, not even the late Coca-Cola chieftain Roberto Goizueta, has created more shareholder value than Jack Welch.

Of course, GE’s success is hardly Welch’s alone. The company boasts what most headhunters believe to be the most talent-rich management in the world. Thus, Robert Wright has managed an astonishing turnaround at NBC, leading it to a fifth straight year of double-digit earnings gains in 1997 and a No.1 position in prime-time ratings. Nor did Welch’s magic work everywhere in GE. The huge appliance operation, for instance, saw operating earnings fall 39% in 1998, to $458 million.

Welch has transformed what was an old-line American industrial giant into a highly competitive global growth engine. Welch has reshaped the company through more than 600 acquisitions and a forceful push abroad into emerging markets. How did Welch, who sat atop a business empire with $304 billion in assets, $89.3 billion in sales, and 276,000 employees in more than 100 countries, did it?

He did it through sheer force of personality, coupled with an unbridled passion for winning the game of business and a keen attention to details many chieftains would simply overlook. He did it because he was a fierce believer in the power of his people.

Welch’s profound grasp on General Electric stemmed from knowing the company and those who work for it like no other. There were the thousands of «students» he has encountered in his classes at the Croton-on-Hudson campus. Then there was the way he spent his time: More than half was devoted to «people» issues. But most important, he has created something unique at a big company: informality.

Welch liked to call General Electric the «grocery store». «What’s important at the grocery store is just as important in engines or medical systems,» said Welch. «If the customer isn’t satisfied, if the stuff is getting stale, if the shelf isn’t right, it’s the same thing. You manage it like a small organization. You don’t get hung up on zeros.»

You don’t get hung up on formalities, either. If the hierarchy that Welch inherited, with its nine layers of management, hasn’t been completely undermined, it has been severely damaged. Everyone called him Jack. Everyone could expect to see him hurry down an aisle to pick through the merchandise on a bottom shelf or to surprise an employee with a bonus.

Making the company «informal» meant violating the chain of command, communicating across layers, paying people as if they worked not for a big company but for a demanding entrepreneur where nearly everyone knows the boss. It had as much to do with Welch’s charisma as it had to do with the less visible rhythms of the company – its meetings and review sessions – and how he used them to great advantage.

When Welch became CEO, he inherited a series of obligatory corporate events that he transformed into meaningful levers of leadership. These get-togethers allowed him to set and change the corporation’s agenda, to challenge the strategies and the people in each of GE’s dozen divisions, and to make his opinions known to all.

Welch believed that efficiencies in business were infinite because there were no bounds to human creativity. «The idea flow from the human spirit is absolutely unlimited,» Welch declared. «All you have to do is tap into that well. I don’t like to use the word efficiency. It’s creativity. It’s a belief that every person counts.»

Not surprisingly, Welch embraced the largest corporate quality initiative ever undertaken. For years, he had been skeptical of the quality programs that were the rage in the 1980s. He felt that they were too heavy on slogans and too light on results. That was before he heard Lawrence Bossidy telling about the benefits he was reaping from a quality initiative he had launched at AlliedSignal. Bossidy had borrowed the Six Sigma program from Motorola and reported that the company was lowering costs, increasing productivity, and generating more profit.

A Six Sigma quality level generates fewer than 3.4 defects per million operations in a manufacturing or service process. GE is running at a Sigma level of three to four. The gap between that and the Six Sigma level is costing the company between $8 billion and $12 billion a year in inefficiencies and lost productivity. To make the ideas take hold throughout GE required the training of so-called master black belts, black belts, and green belts. Welch launched the effort in late 1995 with 200 projects and intensive training programs, moved to 3,000 projects and more training in 1996, and implemented 6,000 projects and still more training in 1997. In 1998, Six Sigma delivered $320 million in productivity gains and profits, more than double Welch’s original goal of $150 million. «Six Sigma has spread like wildfire across the company, and it is transforming everything we do,» boasted Welch.

Show and Tell

The success of the program was evident in 1998 at Boca Raton, where Welch kicked off each year with a meeting for the top 500 executives. That year, 29 managers spoke about their Six Sigma projects describing how they used new ideas to squeeze still more profit out of the lean machine that is GE. One after another explained how quality efforts cut costs and mistakes, enhanced productivity, and eliminated the need for investment in new plant and equipment.

William Woodburn, who headed GE’s industrial diamonds business, was one of the 1998 heroes at Boca. In just 4 years, Woodburn had increased the operation’s return on investment fourfold and halved the cost structure.

Employing Six Sigma ideas, he and his team have squeezed so much efficiency out of their existing facilities that they believed they have eliminated the need for all investment in plant and equipment for a decade. Some 300 other managers from GE have visited the plant to learn directly how Woodburn has done it.

But the main event was Welch’s wrap-up comments. Even though GE had just ended a record year, with earnings up 13%, Welch wanted more. Most CEOs would give a feel-good, congratulatory chat. But Welch warned the group that it would face one of the toughest years in a decade. It’s no time to be complacent, he said, not with the Asian economic crisis, not with deflation in the air.

Then, the ideas tumbled out of him for how they can combat deflation. «Don’t add costs,» he advised. «Increase inventory turns. Use intellectual capital to replace plant and equipment investment. Raise approvals for price decisions.»

Roses and Champagne

Welch was uncommonly conscious of the signals and symbolism of leadership. His handwritten notes sent to everyone from direct reports to hourly workers possessed enormous impact, too. Moments after Welch lifted his black felt-tip pen, they were sent via fax direct to the employee. Two days later, the original arrived in the mail.

They were written to inspire and motivate as often as to stir and demand action. In 1996, for example, Woodburn turned down a promotion from Welch that would have required a transfer because he didn’t want to move his teenage daughter out of school. Welch spoke to Woodburn on the phone and within a day sent a personal note to him.

«Bill,» wrote Welch, «we like you for a lot of reasons – one of them is that you are a very special person. You proved it again this morning. Good for you and your lucky family. Make Diamonds a great business and keep your priorities straight.» To Woodburn, the note was an important gesture. «It showed me he cared about me not as a manager but as a person. It means a lot.»

Or consider how Welch became involved in the excruciating details of the tubes that go into GE’s X-ray and CAT-scan machines. In the mid-1990s, Welch, who spent 15% to 20% of his time interacting with customers, heard some complaints about the poor quality of the tubes. The product was averaging little more than 25,000 scans, less than half what competing tubes were getting.

To fix the problem, Welch reached two levels down into the organization and summoned to corporate headquarters Marc Onetto who had been general manager for service and maintenance in Europe. His orders were simple and direct: «Fix it,» Welch demanded. «I want 100,000 scans out of my tubes!»

For the next four years, Onetto faxed weekly reports direct to Welch, detailing his progress. Back would come notes from Welch every three to four weeks. Some would nearly growl for greater progress; others would flatter and cajole. The experience astonished Onetto. «I was just running a little business here, about $450 million in revenues, and I was so amazed that he could find the time to read my reports and then even send me back notes,» he said. Since then, Onetto’s team has created versions of the tubes that average between 150,000 and 200,000 scans. The improvements added about $14 million in productivity benefits to the division last year.

Not everyone saw that side of Welch. Some rank-and-file employees, for example, grumbled about the unrelenting pressure on them to perform. «No matter how many records are broken in productivity or profits, it’s always ‘What have you done for me lately?» ’ said Stephen Tormey, who negotiated the United Electrical Workers contract. «The workers are considered lemons, and they are squeezed really dry.»

Other critics have questioned whether the pressure Welch imposed led some employees to cut corners, possibly contributing to the defense-contracting scandals that have plagued GE or the humiliating Kidder, Peabody bond-trading scheme of the early 1990s that generated bogus profits.

Stick and Carrot

Few would dispute that Welch was seen as a demanding executive who aroused a mixture of awe and fear. Aware of the daunting effect he can have on people, Welch worked hard to counter that image. Not long ago, recalled human relations chief William J. Conaty, one manager who had to make a presentation before Welch was so apprehensive he was shaking. It was the first time he had met Welch, who was passing through St. Louis. «I’m so nervous,» the manager confessed to Welch. «And my wife has told me she’ll throw me out of the house if I can’t get through this presentation.»

At day’s end, when Welch was back on the corporate plane, he immediately arranged for a dozen roses and a bottle of Dom Perignon to be delivered to the man’s home. He then wrote a note to the wife: «Your husband did a fantastic job today. We’re sorry we put him and you through this for a couple of weeks.»

Welch set precise performance targets and monitored them throughout the year. And each of Welch’s direct reports received from Welch handwritten, two-page job evaluation at the end of every year. Attached to the detailed notes were his jottings from a year earlier, with new comments written in red pencil: «Nice job.» «Still needs work.»

Every bonus, and every stock-option grant to Welch’s 20 or so direct reports came with a candid talk about performance. «There are carrots and sticks here, and he is extraordinarily good at applying both,» said a senior VP. «When he hands you a bonus or a stock option, he lets you know exactly what he wants in the coming year.»

Welch skillfully used rewards to drive behavior. Welch demanded that the rewards a leader disbursed to people be highly differentiated. Although GE set an overall 4% salary increase as a target in 1998, base salaries could rise by as much as 25% in a year without a promotion. Cash bonuses could increase as much as 150% in a year. Stock options, once reserved for the most senior officers at GE, have been broadly expanded under Welch. Now, some 27,000 employees get them, nearly a third of GE’s professional employees. Unlike many companies that hand out options as automatic annual grants, Welch did not want GE’s program to be perceived as a «dental plan.» So everyone who received options didn’t get them every year.

Welch has been a major beneficiary of stock options. Yet few things energized Welch as much as reviewing a list of GE employees who cash in their rewards. Combing through the names, Welch could hardly contain his enthusiasm – for the wealth he has put into the hands of people whose names were unfamiliar to him. In the first quarter of 1998 alone, some 3,900 employees exercised 8.7 million options with a net value of $520 million. «It means that everyone is getting the rewards, not just a few of us,» he said. «That’s a big deal. We’re changing their game and their lives».

While analysts on Wall Street or GE’s own investors viewed Welch’s likely legacy as creating the world’s most valuable company in stock market terms, Welch himself saw things quite differently. The man who spent more than 50% of his time on people issues considered his greatest achievement the care and feeding of talent. «This place runs by its great people,» said Welch. «The biggest accomplishment I’ve had is to find great people. An army of them. They are all better than most CEOs.»

While many companies profess to run as meritocracies, in reality, they are often conscious of class. At GE many of the company’s most successful executives were, like Welch, the first in their families to earn college degrees. When it came time to pick a new CFO, for instance, Welch passed over several candidates in line for the job in favor of then 38-year-old Dennis Dammerman two layers down in the ranks because he was impressed with how he had handled other tough assignments.

In every potential leader, Welch was looking for what he called «E to the fourth power.» That was his term for people who have enormous personal energy, the ability to motivate and energize others, «edge» – the GE code word for being instinctively competitive – and the skill to execute on those attributes.

* * *

On September 7, 2001, Jack Welch said goodbye to GE, and its people. He appointed Jeff Immelt to succeed him and set in place a staff that he believes will support his successor. The next chapter in GE’s history began.

Source: Business Week (online), June 8, 1998, abridged

Essential Vocabulary

1. market value – рыночная ценность

2. shareholder value – ценность для акционеров

3. headhunter n – специалист по подбору кадров

4. turnaround n – благоприятный поворот (конъюнктуры, дел компании); вывод компании из кризиса

turn around v – выводить (компанию) из кризиса

5. double-digit a – двузначный

6. operating earnings – операционный доход

7. acquisition n – поглощение; приобретение

acquire v – поглощать; приобретать

8. emerging market – развивающийся рынок

9. asset n – актив

10. merchandise n – товары, торгуемые в розницу

11. chain of command – цепочка (иерархия) подчиненности

12. entrepreneur n – предприниматель

entrepreneurship n – предпринимательство

entrepreneurial a – предпринимательский

13.lever n – рычаг

14. agenda n – повестка дня

15. division n – подразделение, деление; разделение

16. creativity n – творчество

create v – создавать

creative a – творческий

17.borrowing n – заимствование

borrower n – заемщик

borrow v – заимствовать

borrowed a – заемный

18. gap n – разрыв

19. gain n – повышение, рост (курса акций, цены); прибыль, доход, выгода

gain v – зарабатывать, добывать, выгадывать, выигрывать; получать, приобретать, достигать, добиваться

gainful a – доходный, прибыльный, выгодный; оплачиваемый

20. implementation n – претворение в жизнь

implement v – претворять в жизнь

21. equipment n – оборудование

equip v – оборудовать

22. approval n – одобрение, утверждение

approve v – одобрять, утверждать

23. return on investment (ROI) – доходность инвестиций

24. facility n – (производственная) мощность, здание; кредитная линия, схема кредитования

25. report n – отчет, доклад; подотчетное лицо

report v – отчитываться, докладывать; быть подотчетным

26. average v – в среднем равняться

average a – средний

27. headquarters n – штаб-квартира

28. maintenance n – поддержание в рабочем состоянии, ремонт; эксплуатационные расходы

maintain v – поддерживать в рабочем состоянии, ремонтировать

29. revenue n – выручка

30. negotiation n – переговоры

negotiator n – переговорщик

negotiate v – вести переговоры

31. defense n – оборона; оборонная промышленность

32. bond n – зд. облигация

33. human relations (HR) – отношения с сотрудниками

34. job evaluation – оценка результатов работы сотрудника

35. stock option – опцион на акции

36. vice-president (VP) – вице-президент

37. base salary – базовая зарплата

38. exercise n – упражнение; осуществление, использование (права), исполнение опциона

exercise v – упражняться; осуществлять, использовать (право), исполнять опцион

39. stock market – фондовый рынок

40. Сhief Financial Officer (CFO) – главный финансовый директор

41. assignment n – задание; уступка; назначение; поручение

assign v – назначать; поручать; уступать

42. appointment n – назначение; должность; встреча, прием

appoint v – назначать, утверждать; договариваться (о встрече), назначать встречу; предназначать, отводить

43. staff n – штат, персонал

Jack Welch’s Leadership Principles

– Face reality as it is, not as it was or as you wish it were;

– Be candid with everyone;

– Don’t manage, lead;

– Change before you have to;

– If you do not have a competitive advantage, do not compete;

– Control your own destiny, or someone else will.

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. Why is Jack Welch considered the greatest corporate leader of the 20th century? 2. How did he achieve such a tremendous success in creating shareholder value? 3. What was he focused on? 4. How did he manage to combine a small-company environment with big-company resources? 5. Was Welch a firm believer in human creativity? 6. What is Six Sigma program and what benefits did it bring to GE? 7. How did Welch interact with his people? 8. How did he use rewards to drive performance? 9. How did Welch promote people?

Exercise 2. Describe a great manager that you know or that you’ve read about and identify features and characteristics that make him or her great.

Exercise 3*. Answer the following multiple-choice question.

What makes the following persons world-famous?

Henry Ford I

1. He invented and introduced an assembly line.

2. He began to pay his workers $5 per hour thus creating potential consumers of his cars.

3. He drastically improved productivity and cut costs in his enterprises.

4. He believed that the more you criticize your people the worse they work.

5. All of the above.

6. None of the above.

Pavel Tretiakov

1. He headed a highly profitable timber-processing factory.

2. He was a major sponsor of art.

3. He developed and commercialized nylon.

4. He acquired oil fields in Baku from the Nobel family.

Lee Iacocca

1. He is the pioneer of venture capitalism in the US.

2. He developed the U.S. anti-monopoly legislation.

3. He turned Chrysler around and saved it from bankruptcy.

4. He launched the first mini computer.

Steve Jobs

1. He founded Apple Computers.

2. He was the richest tycoon in the world.

3. He was CFO of General Motors.

4. He developed and promoted equity theory of motivation.

Vagit Alekperov

1. He is CEO of one of the biggest Russian oil companies.

2. He was at the helm of LUKOIL for two decades.

3. He was very successful in internationalizing LUKOIL’s business activities.

4. He is one of the most influential business leaders in Russia.

5. All of the above.

6. None of the above.

Exercise 4*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

Who is Jack Welch?

Jack Welch is the most admired……. in the world. His 20-year reign as the head of General Electric………. the company from the bureaucratic behemoth to dynamic and revered powerhouse. During his tenure, GE……… grew from $13 billion to $500 billion. In the process, Welch’s management………. have made him the most influential business leader of his era.

In April 1981, Welch assumed the helm of GE and it was here that his… would begin. First, he adopted a strategy that each…….. must be #1 or #2 in their markets – or in his memorable phrase, they would need to «fix it, sell it, or close it.» Within five years, one of every four people would leave the GE………, 118,000 people in all, including 37,000 employees in businesses that were sold. The……… and closures that resulted earned him the now well-known moniker, «Neutron Jack.»

While the media attacked his policies, Welch remained……… on the job at hand. After visiting a Japanese manufacturing plant in the mid-1970’s he found himself awed by their……. The awe gave way to fear that the Japanese would be a threat, as they tore apart the…… in industry after industry. It was the search for a business safe from the perceived Japanese threat that led Welch to…… RCA for $6.3 billion in 1985.

Welch made GE a people company where ideas flourished and boundaries disappeared. Welch pressed his theory of a «Boundryless» culture in which all levels of the company participated in innovation and………. Ironically, in growing this people culture, he adopted a way of……… his employees that could seem brutal. He ordered all 4,000 managers in the company to make……….. annually. Everyone was to identify the top 20% of…….. to be nurtured and strongly………..; the middle 70% were the strong workers who were the heart and soul of operations; and the remaining 10% were those that either needed to be improved or eliminated.

In his second decade, Welch focused on four basic initiatives: Globalization, Services, Six Sigma, and e-business. During globalization, Welch traveled the world…………. in such countries as China, in Japan, in India, and in Hungary. The services division, meanwhile, grew from $8 billion in 1995 to $19 billion in 2001 under Welch’s……….. The Six Sigma effort, a mathematically grounded program that improves processes, decreases variance, and creates more perfect products while………, was……….. in 1996. Finally, in e-business, Welch came to recognize the enormous impact this technology would have on the company as it allowed GE to expand its markets, find new…………, and make its…………. more global.

Terms:

leadership, customers, payroll, rewarded, CEO, closing deals, reducing costs, acquire, focused, job evaluations, innovations, division, layoffs, cost structure, problem solving, differentiating, launched, suppliers base, market value, staff, efficiency, transformed, legacy

Exercise 5. Translate into English (continued from lesson 3).

Ли Якокка эффективно возродил «Крайслер». В течение трех лет он сократил 33 из 35 вице-президентов. Ему пришлось уменьшить размеры компании, уволив множество рабочих, менеджеров и бо€льшую часть центрального аппарата, при этом устранив несколько уровней управления. Когда дела в компании шли особенно плохо, чтобы показать, что все находятся в одной лодке, Ли Якокка урезал свою зарплату до символического 1 доллара в год, до тех пор пока финансовое положение компании не улучшится.

Ли Якокка изменил принципы работы компании с дилерами, наладив сотрудничество между ними и сбытовиками «Крайслера». Он успешно использовал новаторский маркетинговый прием – продавал автомобили фирмам, сдающим машины напрокат, тем самым обеспечивая себе косвенную рекламу среди клиентов, которые брали их в аренду.

Веря в то, что все производственные операции сводятся к людям, продукту и прибыли, причем на первом месте стоят люди, Якокка сколотил надежную команду единомышленников. Он понимал, что для успеха компании необходимо построить действительно высококачественную машину, установить на нее конкурентоспособную цену и обеспечить хорошее послепродажное обслуживание – только тогда покупатели устремятся в демонстрационные залы.

Ли Яккока разработал и претворил в жизнь «Программу качества», донеся до всех сотрудников, что качество автомобилей теперь является первоочередным приоритетом «Крайслера» и меры по улучшению качества одновременно способствовали повышению производительности труда. Ли Якокка позаимствовал японскую систему «точно в срок» для сокращения издержек производства и уменьшения запасов.

Он рационализировал структуру концерна, продав подразделение по производству танков, единственное подразделение концерна, которое генерировало прибыль, поскольку считал необходимым сфокусироваться на производстве профильной для «Крайслера» продукции и поскольку компании срочно были нужны наличные для расчетов с поставщиками.

Ли Якокка добился активного участия рекламного агентства «Кенион энд Экхард» в создании новых моделей автомобилей и подписал с ним пятилетний контракт вместо стандартных краткосрочных контрактов, распространенных в автомобильной промышленности. Агентство разработало отличный маркетинговый прием – гарантийный возврат денег за купленный автомобиль после 30 дней пользования, если он по какой-то причине не понравится покупателю.

Важнейшим достижением Ли Якокки можно считать его обращение к правительству США с просьбой выступить гарантом займов компании у банков – это был единственный способ спасти компанию от банкротства. В тот период правительство, деловые круги и население все более отчетливо понимали неэффективность государственного вмешательства в экономику, и большой популярностью пользовался лозунг «Никаких федеральных подачек! (handouts)». Ли Якокке удалось доказать Конгрессу, что банкротство «Крайслера» привело бы к потере десятков тысяч рабочих мест и обошлось бы налогоплательщикам в 16 млрд долл. в виде пособий по безработице, социальных выплат и других расходов и что Америка не стала бы лучше без компании «Крайслер».

В 1982 году «Крайслер» впервые за многие годы заработал прибыль, а в 1983 году досрочно погасил весь банковский заем. Это произошло ровно через пять лет после того, как Ли Якокка был уволен из «Форда».

Источник: по материалам книги Ли Якокки «Карьера менеджера»

Lesson 6
Corporate Strategy

Read and translate the text and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

Carly’s Challenge

The relief at Hewlett-Packard Co.’s headquarters was palpable. On Nov. 16, 2004, just 96 days after its biggest quarterly earnings miss in more than a decade, HP celebrated the company’s 2004 Q4 results. The 66-year-old technology giant had rebounded nicely, reporting a 27% hike in profits, to $1.1 billion, while sales jumped 8%, to $21.4 billion. The market was happy, and HP’s stock rose a solid 8%.

But the next day, cheers gave way to sighs. Certainly the company improved its performance from the disastrous third quarter. But investors were quick to discover the vulnerabilities behind the cheery numbers. HP continued to rely heavily on its superstar printing business while its mammoth PC and server businesses struggled to generate profits. Much of the profit growth stemmed from cuts in R&D, and from a lower tax rate. Without these savings, HP’s profits would have grown only 10% – not 27%.

It has been more than five years since Carleton S. Fiorina hit town with bold plans to reinvent the Silicon Valley icon, and she’s still struggling. The charismatic CEO has zealously pursued a bigger-is-better strategy, with hopes of creating a technology world-beater. Thanks largely to its $19 billion acquisition of Compaq Computer in 2002, HP has doubled its sales in the past five years and become a competitor in an unprecedented number of markets.

Yet in too many of the businesses, HP is losing steam. Sure, its $24 billion printing division generates impressive profits. But the rest of HP is an underachiever. In personal computers, it’s no match for Dell. And HP is too often outgunned by IBM in the global markets for corporate computing. Fiorina’s team faces steep operational challenges as it tries to cope with HP’s huge portfolio of businesses. «It requires entirely different strategies to compete with Dell and IBM,» says analyst Bill Shope of J.P. Morgan. «Judging by HP’s performance, they haven’t been able to do either.»

Analysts estimate the stand-alone value of its printing business as slightly less than the entire company’s $61 billion capitalization. That means that the rest of HP’s businesses, which generate $56 billion in revenues, are being valued at next to nothing.

Still, HP is hardly insolvent. Its 2005 profits are expected to reach $4.5 billion, with sales climbing 6%, to $85 billion. Trouble is, HP has earned a reputation of not meeting expectations. Over the past 20 quarters, HP has missed analysts’ profit estimates seven times. «(HP is) trying to do 100 things. It’s hard to do everything well,» says Joseph Tucci, CEO of EMC Corp., a rival in the storage business.

Louder Drumbeat. Investors aren’t impressed, and Wall Street is insisting on a simple solution: break the company up. The CEO strongly resists the idea. The BoD continues to discuss such a move, but directors support Fiorina’s commitment to hold the company together. Still, the calls to split apart the consumer and corporate businesses, or to sell off the printer division, are bound to grow if she fails to light a fire under HP’s underperformers. The breakup options could certainly appeal to investors. Analyst Steven Milunovich of Merrill Lynch estimates that the total value of HP’s businesses could increase by 25% to 45% if it were split into printing and nonprinting operations. The printing business could expand its market and partner with HP’s computing rivals, including IBM and Dell.

And managers of the computing company, with its divisions in software, PCs, servers, and tech services, would have to struggle to make profits. No longer subsidized by the printer division, they would have no choice but to perform. Merrill assesses that the spin-off would create $15 billion to $27 billion in incremental value.

For now, Fiorina continues to bet on bulk. She contends that HP’s scope pays off in added sales and lower costs. Consumers and corporations, for example, often shop for both printers and computers at the same time. And HP does benefit from economies of scale. After the Compaq merger, the company cut $3.5 billion in annual expenses, in part by squeezing components suppliers for lower prices.

Broad Reach. Fiorina insists that HP needs the broadest possible scale to capitalize on her vision of technology’s future. A former executive at AT&T, Fiorina has become a leading evangelist for the converged digital world. She describes how the Information Revolution will transform corporations and electrify entertainment, with the whole world becoming «digital and mobile and virtual and personal». In line with this vision, she has assembled a giant corporation that is far broader than Dell or IBM. HP makes everything from calculators and cameras to supercomputers, and competes with Sony, Canon, Samsung, EDS, just about everyone in tech.

Fiorina carries the solid Q4 results into an analysts’ day in Boston on Dec. 7. This eases the pressure for her to take dramatic action. But the latest numbers merit a second look. During the period, HP’s tax rate fell to 15%, down from 19% a year earlier. In addition, R&D decreased to 4% of sales, down from 4.6% the year before. This pumped up profits. Investors who are excited about a sustained, profitable growth from HP should be wary. «You can’t simply keep cutting R&D and the tax rate to boost profits,» says analyst Richard Chu of SG Cowen Securities.

HP acknowledges the point. CFO Robert P. Wayman said that the decline in the tax rate was primarily a result of the favorable resolution of a state tax audit and that the tax rate would probably rise to 20% in the coming year. HP officials have said that they expected R&D spending to diminish, because of the elimination of redundancies from the Compaq merger and its efforts to place fewer, more focused research bets.

As analysts appraise HP’s Q4 numbers, other questions arise. During the period, its receivables surged by $1.8 billion, to $10.2 billion. HP defends the increase saying that it shipped extra units to support several product launches.

Unwieldy System. Still, HP suffers from poor positioning. In its PC business, HP runs two systems that often operate at odds with each other. One is a direct-sales, built-to-order model to compete with Dell, which carries virtually no inventory. The other is HP’s traditional, higher-inventory model for units that it ships through its sales partners. Operating in both worlds leaves HP doubly exposed.

Yet if the company pushes more business into direct sales, it risks angering HP’s traditional retailers and resellers. And HP needs their help to sell its printers and ink. A break-up would help to resolve this dilemma, freeing the computer division to adopt the Dell approach. For now, HP keeps both systems intact – and loses ground in PCs. Following the Compaq merger, HP briefly rose to the No. 1 in PCs. But the company slipped to No. 2, with 15.7% share, behind Dell, which has an 18.3% share. Operating margins in 2004 were a meager 0.9%, miles behind Dell’s 8.8%.

HP also appears overmatched in its rivalry with IBM. Big Blue has put together a more lucrative portfolio of corporate computing products. They span everything from software to servers to chips, and they generate overall 11% operating margins. By comparison, HP’s non-printing businesses managed operating margins of 3% in 2004. The disparity is especially clear in the profit-rich software business. In IBM’s third quarter, its software biz generated $3.6 billion and operating margins of 25%. HP reported $277 million in software sales for its Q4, posting a small operating loss.

At times, HP’s push for synergies has gotten in the way. Take storage. After buying Compaq’s market-leading storage unit, HP integrated it into its enterprise group, which also includes servers and software. Along the way, HP fired many storage-sales specialists in favor of sales reps with a broad knowledge of HP offerings. Key storage execs followed them out the door. Soon, competitors such as EMC began to nab customers from HP. Storage revenues dropped 5% in 2003 and a further 7% in 2004. Even loyal HP customers chose EMC when buying storage gear earlier this year. Although HP recognizes the error and is hiring back storage specialists, it cautions that a turnaround in storage could take time.

Other customers have even more serious complaints. For instance, HP has developed customized Web sites for customers where they can place and manage orders. However, these business-to-business sites have frequently cratered – erasing accounts, losing orders, and shipping the wrong products. An HP sales representative complained to his superiors about the disappearance of 70 customers from the B2B systems: «I can’t even evaluate how many relationships… have been burned with this new site.» HP has no comment on the B2B issue.

Patchwork Quilt. Similar problems have hamstrung HP’s efforts to compete with IBM in large corporate computing deals. The technology supporting HP’s corporate-computing sales remains a patchwork of overlapping and poorly fitting systems despite recent efforts at streamlining. HP sales reps spend only 30% to 35% of their working time with customers and partners, compared with 55% to 60% at well-run organizations. «I would stress how difficult it is to do business inside HP,» says Paul Gerrard, HP’s former vice-president. «There are terrible inefficiencies in the system.»

To pull off a big sales deal at HP often requires delicate diplomacy. Putting together a package involving servers, printers, and software, a sales rep has to reach an agreement with each division. If one unit is unwilling to lower its price, the whole deal can fall through. The company lacks an effective process to resolve conflicts. Fiorina helps broker some deals, but she has time only for the biggest accounts.

These problems have fueled calls within HP for hiring a trouble-shooting operations chief. Fiorina is categorically against a COO, saying that a strong CEO should keep a grip on operations. Many analysts rate Fiorina very highly as an inspiring speaker and salesperson, but either lacking the skills or stretched too thin to solve HP’s operations challenges.

If Fiorina continues to struggle, pressure is sure to mount for her to spin off the printing and imaging division. It boosted its sales by 7% in 2004, to $24.2 billion. And it’s a cash geyser, providing 76% of HP’s operating profits, derived from just 30% of total sales. Analysts speculate that freedom from broad corporate management could improve the printer group’s performance. Separating from the printing division could protect HP from its most dangerous long-term threat in the printing business, Dell.

Although it’s unlikely Dell would exit the printer business if HP spun off its printer operation, Dell would have much less incentive to wage price wars, making life easier for the stand-alone HP printing business. And rivals such as IBM and Dell could resell HP’s equipment or license its technology. «If HP separated their businesses today, and the imaging and printing business was its own entity, I would bet we would be partners because they’re a source of technology,» says Tim Peters, VP at Dell.

Going Shopping? HP’s corporate computing businesses could also benefit from standing on their own. Although investors are valuing the nonprinting operations at next to nothing now, these units generated $1.4 billion in operating profit in 2004. Merrill Lynch’s Milunovich figures that the businesses, if they were independent, could be worth $18 billion to $21 billion. Milunovich predicts that without the protection of the cash-cow printing business, managers would respond to acute pressure to revamp its sales, upgrade tech systems, and divest declining businesses.

HP’s services division also needs a lift. With $14 billion in revenues, this group helps corporate customers manage new information systems. Yet HP struggles in services against IBM, whose service division is three times bigger. While more than 60% of HP’s services business comes from low-end customer support and maintenance, some 70% of Big Blue’s service revenues come from business consulting and strategic outsourcing, really high-margin deals. IBM strengthened its high-end consulting services through the $3.5 billion purchase of PricewaterhouseCoopers Consulting in 2002 – a purchase Fiorina rejected at a lower price.

As Fiorina completes a half-decade atop HP, the excitement of the early years has faded. The charismatic and determined CEO who set out to build a titan has now assumed a defensive posture and is working to keep her creation in one piece. For success, she must tackle HP’s stubborn operational glitches. This will require every ounce of her guile, passion, and boldness. But at this point, her choices are stark: The only way to defend the sprawling HP she has built is to fix it. Until she does, the calls for the breakup of a Silicon Valley icon will only grow louder.

Source: Business Week (online), December 13, 2004 (abridged)

Essential Vocabulary

1. rebound n – отскок, отдача, реакция; восстановление

rebound v – отскакивать; иметь обратное действие; воспрянуть, оживиться

2. tax rate – налоговая ставка

3. underachiever n – достигающий более низких результатов по сравнению со своими возможностями

underachieve v – достигать более низких результатов по сравнению со своими возможностями

4. portfolio n – портфель

portfolio a – портфельный

5. stand-alone value – ценность отдельно взятого предприятия в рамках компании

6. capitalization n – капитализация

7. revenue(s) n – выручка, доходы

8. synergy n – синергия

synergetic a – синергетический

9. insolvency n – неплатежеспособность

insolvent a – неплатежеспособный

10. breakup n – разделение (компании), разрыв

break up v – разделять, разрывать

11. Board of Directors (BoD) – Совет директоров

12. underperformer n – демонстрирующий результаты ниже возможных (или ниже рынка)

underperform v – демонстрировать результаты ниже возможных (или ниже рынка)

13. option n – опцион, вариант выбора

14. rival n – соперник

rivalry n – соперничество

rival v – соперничать

15. subsidy n – субсидия

subsidize v – субсидировать

16. spin-off n – отпочкование, отделение (создание самостоятельной компании на основе части производства существующей компании)

spin off v – отпочковываться, отделяться

17. increment n – увеличение, прирост, приращение

incremental a – увеличивающийся, прирастающий

18. bulk n – величина, масса, объем, большие количества; основная масса, бо€льшая часть

19. scope n – пределы, границы, рамки; масштаб; размах

20. economies of scale – экономия на масштабах производства

21. merger n – слияние

merge v – сливаться

22. expense n – расходы, затраты

23. scale n – масштаб, размах, охват; шкала, уровень

24. capitalize (on) v – капитализировать, использовать что-то в своих интересах

25. convergence n – конвергенция, сближение

converge v – сближаться

26.sustain v – поддерживать; выдерживать; испытывать

sustained a – длительный, поддерживаемый, непрерывный

sustainable a – устойчивый

27. boost n – поддержка, проталкивание; повышение, ускорение

boost v – поднимать, подпихивать; рекламировать; повышать, ускорять

28. receivables n – дебиторская задолженность

29. shipment n – отгрузка, отправка

ship v – отгружать, отправлять

30. positioning n – позиционирование

position v – позиционировать

31. exposure n – подверженность риску, риск потенциальных убытков; разоблачение; положение; незащищенность; экспозиция

expose v – выставлять; подвергать риску, воздействию; сталкиваться; раскрывать, разоблачать; показывать, выставлять напоказ

32. margin n – маржа

marginal a – маргинальный

33. biz (business) – бизнес (амер. жаргон)

34. post v – переносить записи (делать проводки) (бухг.)

35. operating loss – операционный убыток

36. fire v – зд. увольнять

37. rep (representative) – представитель (амер. жаргон)

38. exec (executive) – руководитель (амер. жаргон)

39. error n – ошибка, погрешность; неправильная банковская проводка

err v – ошибаться

40. hire v – нанимать

41. customize v – специально разрабатывать под нужды клиента

customized a – специально разработанный

42. account n – счет

account (for) v – учитывать; приходиться на долю

43. superior n – начальник, руководящее лицо; превосходящий другого

superior a – лучший, превосходящий, превосходный, высшего качества

44. issue n – выпуск, эмиссия; вопрос

issue v – выпускать, эмитировать

45. overlap v – дублировать; пересекаться, совпадать, налагаться друг на друга

overlapping a – дублирующие; пересекающиеся, совпадающие, налагающиеся друг на друга

46. trouble-shooter n – специалист по улаживанию конфликтов или решению острых проблем

trouble-shooting a – улаживающий конфликты или решающий проблемы

47. Сhief Operating Officer (COO) – главный операционный директор (отвечает за повседневную деятельность, текущие операции корпорации)

48. incentive n – стимул

49. entity n – юридическое лицо; юридическая форма организации компании

50. revamp v – переоборудовать, переделывать, обновлять

51. upgrade n – модернизация, обновление, повышение, улучшение

upgrade v – модернизировать, обновлять, повышать (качество, рейтинг), улучшать

52. low end a – недорогой, невысокого класса

53. outsourcing n – аутсорсинг, передача каких-либо функций субподрядчикам

outsource v – передавать какие-либо функции субподрядчикам

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. Did HP report impressive results in the 4th quarter of 2004? 2. What were the key factors that contributed to its improved financial performance? 3. How did the acquisition of Compaq affect HP? 4. What are its current financial and operating problems? 5. Why do analysts and investors insist on the break-up of the company? 6. What was Carly Fiorina’s vision when she joined HP? 7. Why is HP unable to compete successfully with IBM and Dell? 8. What are its customers complaining about? 9. Is HP really efficient? 10. Why does it make sense to spin off the printing and imaging division? 11. What do you think Fiorina should do to turn HP around?

Exercise 2*. Find 6 verbs in the text for «оценивать» and make 2 sentences with each verb.

Exercise 3. Carly Fiorina hired you as her strategic advisor. What serious problems of HP сould you identify and what would you recommend doing to strengthen its competitive positions?

Exercise 4*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

The Nation’s Worst CEOs

…… grab headlines for soaring…… or sordid crimes, but rarely for wretched……. Here are two who’ve run great companies into the ground.

In the late 1990s, investors deified corporate chief executives. In the early 2000s……..were vilified. And now, it seems, they are pretty much ignored – seldom appearing on financial television programs or news magazine covers anymore unless they’re in handcuffs. They are the forgotten souls of Wall Street’s……… machine.

But that doesn’t mean that the overpaid and……….. executives aren’t making as many bad……… as ever. It simply means that we’ve gotten complacent about the hardships they cause shareholders when they…….. bad strategies, bad communications, bad hiring, bad products and bad marketing – and then blame their problems on the weather, world politics or traders.

AT&T’s David Dorman. Let’s start with David W. Dorman of AT&T. Though he inherited a junkyard dog of a company from the………. prior chief executive, C. Michael Armstrong, he hasn’t done a thing to improve Ma Bell in the past two years. With such an immensely well-known…… name and legendary………, you would think that Dorman could make his company synonymous with the global growth of networking as a way of life.

Yet he appears to be pushing the company ever deeper into the background……its wireless business in an expensive deal with Sprint, losing the……. on broadband services to the more aggressive Baby Bells, making its long-distance plans more ridiculously complex than ever, experimenting with a high-quality-but-high-cost enterprise strategy, and pursuing Internet-based telephony too slowly and timidly.

Since Dorman has taken the reins, the…… of AT&T……. have sunk about 60%. The stock’s 5.8% dividend is a nice start of a……… but Dorman needs to find a way to grow the business……. have been down every year since 2000, and earnings-growth……. are negative.

Oracle’s Larry Ellison. No major technology company’s chief executive has put his……… through more pain than Larry Ellison at Oracle in the past four years. Oracle shares are down 72% from the March 2000 high, about twice as much as Dell and about half again as much as Microsoft. And while most of Ellison’s………. have found a way to make shares grow over the past 12 months, Oracle is still stuck in a rut.

Part of the problem at Oracle is that the company did so well for so long at getting its databases into Fortune 500 companies that there is little room for major business……… With so few major………. left in the world, it will be difficult for Oracle to grow much faster than the global economy. But Ellison’s personality is another major part of the problem. His combative……….. to business with partners and competitors alike has turned off investors. His attempt at………. of PeopleSoft has justified their distrust of his instincts.

Mark Anderson, hedge fund manager, complains that Ellison «is so predatory – it’s as though he cannot control himself.» Anderson says that Ellison would grow………… more appropriately if he were more creative than rapacious. The PeopleSoft………., in Anderson’s view, is a…….. to «buy seats» for Oracle database software by purchasing and shutting down a………. It will probably……, and, in the meantime, it has been a costly distraction.

Ellison would do much better by his shareholders if he would……. an initiative to build communications more effectively into the world of database applications. The chief executive understood the power of the Internet early and rode the online…….. brilliantly in the late 1990s. But since then he was unable to find a……. for his company in a broader…….. play that will carry it into the next decade.

With that……., he has doomed his company to……. revenue growth and a stagnant……. Database software, after all, is a business that will never go away and gets deeply embedded in clients’ way of doing business. Once you have customers, «you pretty much need to shoot both their dogs before they’ll leave you,» is Anderson’s colorful phrase. But Wall Street demands more than……. With moderating sales, he’s got to do more than try to smother the…….. and……..

Source: www.msn.com

Terms:

boom, failure, acquisition, counterparts, stability, communications, execs, bid, CEOs, approach, strategic decisions, pursue, drive, overrated, brand, outsourcing, price wars, value, rebound, trends, shareholder, growth, installation, shareholder value, deal, competitor, single-digit, stock price, competition, cut costs, profits, performance, revamped, R&D team, shares, revenues, fail, market niche, underachieving

Exercise 5. Translate into English.

Ценности капитализма: План Госплану рознь

Инвесторы и аналитики все большее внимание уделяют не только текущим финансовым показателям компаний и конъюнктуре рынка их продукции, но и их долгосрочной стратегии. Стратегическое планирование включает производственные, финансовые и инвестиционные вопросы, систему организации и мотивации менеджмента, политику в области корпоративного управления (corporate governance).

Амбициозные и одновременно прагматичные стратегии, нацеленные на рост рыночной доли, лидерство по качеству товаров и услуг, а также высокий уровень рентабельности по сравнению с конкурентами, естественно, пользуются наибольшими симпатиями инвесторов. Долгосрочное видение проблем оценивается выше, чем краткосрочное планирование. Западные компании, приходящие в Россию, такие, как BP, привнесли в практику своих российских партнеров именно вкус к долгосрочному планированию, а также необходимость глубоких и системных исследований в области маркетинга и технологий. Известно, что Shell сделал ставку на финансирование масштабных фундаментальных разработок в области добычи и переработки нефти и газа, и такой подход, несмотря на отсутствие быстрого результата, оказался жизнеспособным, если мерить не одним-двумя годами, а десятками лет. Технологические разработки Shell являются знаковым конкурентным преимуществом компании.

В России после печального опыта советского Госплана, планировавшего все и вся, включая производство спичечных коробков и карандашей, на 10 лет вперед, корпорации, вероятно, рассчитывали прежде всего на «невидимую руку» рынка при принятии управленческих решений и оказались не готовы к выработке долгосрочных стратегий. Перегибы тотального планирования извратили саму сущность стратегического планирования, ориентированного на изучение вероятных трансформаций в предпочтениях клиентов, возможностей сокращения издержек производства, современных способов оптимизации управления.

В то же время стратегия должна наряду с ориентированием компании на улучшение финансовых показателей способствовать росту ее цивилизованности в части качества продукции, социальных и экологических стандартов, репутации и т. д. Стоимость бренда составляет в западных странах немалую часть от капитализации компании. Несомненно, приветствуются инновации, обеспечивающие корпорации уникальный фирменный стиль, неповторимое лицо, эксклюзивность и комфорт для клиентов и инвесторов в ее ценные бумаги.

При выходе на рынок важно грамотно и сфокусированно подать информацию о компании инвесторам. К примеру, НЛМК, готовящий в настоящее время IPO, справедливо говорит как об объективных факторах (технологически современное производство), так и об успехах менеджмента (достижения в части вертикальной интеграции, отсутствие покупок непрофильных активов (non-core assets) и т. д.) и о стратегических установках, прежде всего в части обеспечения полной независимости от поставок сырья в среднесрочной перспективе. Такой подход выглядит оправданным и логичным.

«Газпром» апеллирует к инвесторам своими планами по географической диверсификации экспортных поставок (в том числе через строительство Северо-Европейского газопровода) и созданию полноценной энергетической компании, которая позволит снизить цикличность бизнеса и повысить его рентабельность. «Лукойлу», в свою очередь, близка идея глобальной компании (отсюда активизация зарубежной экспансии последнего времени), и не просто нефтяной, а нефтегазовой (отсюда серьезные инвестиции в газовые проекты).

Интересна стратегия электроэнергетических компаний, особенно прошедших реструктуризацию, например «Мосэнерго». Акцент с реформирования смещается на замену устаревшего оборудования с целью повышения его экономичности в условиях роста цен на газ, бо€льшую степень ориентированности на клиента по мере подготовки к либерализации электроэнергетического рынка. Плюс ориентация на передовые стандарты управленческой отчетности, современные методы управления издержками и капитальными затратами.

Таким образом, главное в стратегиях компании – их комплексность и гармоничность: производственные и технологические амбиции должны иметь финансовый фундамент, а смелые новации в отношении продуктового ряда опираться на взвешенные маркетинговые исследования. Отраслевые лидеры становятся и лидерами фондового рынка, двигателями его устойчивого поступательного развития.

Источник: Сергей Суверов, начальник центра анализа рыночной конъюнктуры Газпромбанка, «Ведомости», 07.12.05 (сокращено)

Lesson 7
Marketing Mix

Read and translate the text and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

Four Ps of Marketing

What is Marketing?

What is the difference between marketing and selling? My old VP of Marketing buddy said it well: «Selling is getting rid of something you’ve got. Marketing is having something you can get rid of.» A successful marketing oriented company is not product driven. Its success comes because of its focus on customers and their needs and wants.

The Selling Process

A selling orientation is one, through which a company emphasizes its products with the main aim of maximizing sales.

The Marketing Process

A marketing orientation begins by examining the needs of the prospective users of a product. Even the details of the product design are driven by paying particular attention to the needs and wishes of the customer. Profits will result from having satisfied customers.

Selling vs. Marketing Processes:

Planning vs. Forecasting?

In a business plan, companies will generally make a «forecast» of sales revenue on a month-by-month basis for the next few years. How can a company say that in May of next year it will generate sales of $2.3 million from Product A? Is this a guess?

If a company says it «plans» to achieve sales of $2.3 million, it is implied that there are specific activities that have been defined that will lead to this target. To this end, the distribution channels for the product must be defined. Pricing assumptions have to be tested and adjusted. Advertising budgets and schedules must be worked out. Most importantly, the resources required to achieve the desired sales level must be calculated. How many salespersons will be needed? What level of technical support is necessary?

The 4 Ps of Marketing or the Marketing «Mix»

The 4 Ps of marketing are Product, Price, Place, and Promotion. The 4 Ps are your marketing «mix». You control the 4Ps. They are your «independent» variables. The dependent variable is sales volume. This is the output that you get by defining the inputs – i.e. the 4 Ps. How do you choose this mix? That is the challenge! These variables are all interdependent. The task is to set these variables in such a way so that sales will take place. You cannot «make» a customer pull out her credit card, but you can certainly help her in coming to a decision by setting the «right» price, the retail outlet, the level of advertising and even product attributes such as color or perceived quality. You control everything but the customer herself.

In defining your marketing mix it is also necessary to take into account your competitor’s mix as well as your overall corporate objectives. The idea is to come up with a mix that will clearly differentiate your products from those of your competitors while considering your corporate goals. For example, the mission of your company may be to offer a high-end luxury product since your competitors are addressing the mass market and this is consistent with your company’s goal of owning the market for top-of-the-line products of this category.

Product

What is it that you are selling? A good marketing manager will be particularly interested in knowing what «need» it addresses? Engineers would think in terms of its functional specifications and marketing people would think more in terms of its features and benefits. Manufacturing people will be thinking about how to make it and along with the accounting group they will be wondering what it costs to make (or buy). Hopefully, they won’t be wondering and will defer instead to rigorous analysis.

Denny Doyle, consultant and founder of Digital Equipment Canada, always told me that the product is what you trade for cash. In other words, your customers want your product and you want their cash and all you do in business is trade those two items.

Price

What is price? The answer may not be as obvious as one may think. Price is not just the sticker price or the price invoiced. It goes deeper. For example, what about terms? Can you have 30 days to pay for a purchase or as we often hear on radio commercials for household furniture, «nothing down, no interest, low monthly payments starting next year!»? A good example of clever pricing was Xerox’s decision to «loan» customers the Xerox 914 and to charge them only $.05 per copy.

As a product moves through the distribution channels, e.g. from manufacturer to distributor to dealer to customer, there are prices set along the way. The manufacturer’s selling price to the distributor becomes the distributor’s cost. Obviously, it is important to understand pricing and margins along the distribution path. Ultimately, the price to the consumer must be competitive. Who sets this price? Does the manufacturer or the dealer have the final say? Can the manufacturer in any way control the price of his product when it hits the street? Most importantly, can the manufacturer make (or sub-contract) the product for a cost to him that allows him to meet his profit objectives given the retail price target?

How do you price a very innovative, one-of-a-kind product? Are you pricing too low and leaving money on the table? Are you pricing yourself out of the market? Presently, there is strong demand for Harley-Davidson motorcycles and delivery times are running over six months. Since only the Harley company makes a Harley, should it raise prices and take advantage of the strong demand? If demand for your product is lagging, should you drop price – especially if the product life cycle has peaked?

There are various pricing strategies. For example, markup pricing is the setting of a price based on one’s cost. This may be appropriate when reselling a product used in providing a service. For example, an auto mechanic may mark up her cost of auto parts by 50%. This may be a simple way for her to determine selling price and from her experience this is in line with what other mechanics are doing.

Another pricing strategy is that of market «skimming». You start with fairly high prices (especially in the absence of competition) and you lower your prices over time as you start to keep up with the demand or as competition begins to move in.

For so-called commodity products, a going-rate pricing approach is often followed. If you are selling gasoline to motorists, it would be very difficult to charge a price per liter which is noticeably different from that charged by gas stations nearby, unless you’re the only station on a 200 km stretch of desert highway.

Currency is another important aspect for technology companies to consider. Because the markets for technology-based products are usually global, you should price your products in U.S. dollars. You might even consider pricing on an FOB (Free-on-Board) Destination basis. When I was selling video terminals in Germany in the 1970s, I priced in Deutschmarks, FOB Frankfurt. This meant that I was taking more risk with respect to currency fluctuations, freight and insurance charges, but by consolidating large volumes to Frankfurt, I was able to greatly reduce air freight expenses thereby offering a competitive price to my distributors.

Place (i.e. distribution)

Placement of the product is crucial. There are often many channels, which a product can take in going from your shop to the customer. Defining a channel strategy is not simply an arbitrary matter. Bear in mind that all middlemen along the way are in partnership with you to sell something to the end-user. Therefore, your product and its other 3 Ps must be such that various resellers in your channel have their needs (e.g. margin objectives, volumes) met.

There is also the question of control. When AES Data launched the world’s first word processor in the early 1970s, it signed up the Lanier company in the USA to handle U.S. sales. However, Lanier was selling the AES product under its own label, and when Lanier decided to switch to another supplier of word processors (as competition emerged), AES had little control over its U.S. customers. To gain a foothold in the U.S. market, it had to start from the beginning in a market which it created! Even if Lanier sold the AES products under the AES name, the channel would still be owned by Lanier in that Lanier had its own loyal customer base along with sales and service offices to support this customer base.

A good practical way to determine appropriate channels for your product would be to start at the point of final purchase. Who is the final consumer or user of your product? Where does that person look when buying your type of product? Once the various channels have been identified, it is easier to determine which ones make the most sense or which ones offer the path of least resistance.

Promotion

Promotion is that term which many people confuse with the word «marketing». But promotion is just one of the four Ps and a good «marketer» is not just a good promoter but also a good planner and a good listener.

Promotion can take many forms: advertising in various media, events, press releases, trade shows, brochures, flyers, and Internet sites to name a few. Promotion means creating awareness although awareness is just the beginning. Good promotion compels the buyer to buy. The «need» for the product must be addressed. How does it solve the customer’s needs (even needs he doesn’t know he has)?

There is virtually no limit on the amount of TV, radio, and newspaper advertising that one can do. When Apple announced the Macintosh in 1984, it used «shocking» television advertisement that was aired during the American Super Bowl broadcast. What an audience! What an impact! And then it was followed up with an inundation of print advertising as well as focused trade publications and trade shows. Of course, this also resulted in extensive «free» media coverage because of the news worthiness of this innovation.

Promotion is done with the purpose of not only creating demand, but building brand awareness. The challenge is to come up with another «kleenex» or «coke» or «Tamagochi».

Source: www.sfu.ca, Business Basics for Engineers by Mike Volker

Essential Vocabulary

1. forecast n – прогноз

forecast v – прогнозировать

2. sales revenues – выручка от продаж

3. distribution channel – канал распределения

4. pricing n – ценообразование

5. adjustment n – корректировка

adjust v – корректировать

6. advertising budget – бюджет на рекламу

7. salesperson (salesman) n – сбытовик, специалист по продажам

8. marketing mix – маркетинговая смесь

9. variable n – переменная (величина)

10. retail outlet – точка розничной торговли

11. high-end a – дорогой, высокого класса

12. top-of-the-line product – товар высшей категории

13. invoice n – счет-фактура

invoice v – выставлять счет-фактуру

14. loan n – заем

15. charge n – цена, плата, денежный сбор; расход, издержки; налог, комиссия за услуги; нагрузка; руководство, ответственность; обвинение, нападение

charge v – нагружать; пропитывать; поручать, вверять, приказывать; обвинять; назначать цену, запрашивать цену; записывать в долг, относить на счет, дебетовать; атаковать

16. selling price – продажная цена

17. lag n – отставание, запаздывание

lag v – отставать, запаздывать

lagging a – отстающий

18. advantage n – преимущество

19. life cycle – жизненный цикл

20. markup pricing – ценообразование с надбавкой к себестоимости товара

21. «skimming» prices – цены, «снимающие сливки»

22. commodity products – товары (чаще всего сырьевые)

23. going-rate pricing – ценообразование с учетом текущего уровня цен

24.Free-on-Board (FOB) – «франко-борт судна» (ФОБ)

25. currency fluctuations – валютные колебания

26. freight n – фрахт, груз

freight v – фрахтовать, грузить

27. middleman n – посредник

28. emerge v – появляться, проявляться, возникать

29. customer (client) base – клиентская база

30. final (end) consumer – конечный потребитель

31. awareness n – знание, осознание, осведомленность

(to be) aware (of) pass – осознавать, отдавать себе отчет

32. coverage n – охват, прикрытие; освещение (событий); общая сумма риска, покрытая страхованием

cover n – покрытие; гарантийный фонд; страхование; чехол, переплет; убежище, укрытие; покров, личина

cover v – покрывать, прикрывать, скрывать, обеспечить покрытие; покрывать убытки; страховать; предусматривать; проехать; освещать

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. What is the difference between marketing and selling? 2. What should a company do to develop a forecast of sales revenues? 3. What independent variables are included in the marketing mix? 4. What main challenge do you face when you develop the marketing mix? 5. How do different categories of professionals perceive a product of their company? 6. What are the most common pricing strategies? 7. How do companies identify distribution channels? 8. What is the difference between promotion and marketing?

Exercise 2. Read and translate the text. Find Russian equivalents for different terms used to describe price. Make sentences of your own with each term.

Price is probably the most flexible variable in the marketing mix. Marketers can usually adjust their prices more easily and more quickly than they can change any other marketing mix variable. To a buyer, price is the value placed on what is exchanged. Something of value – usually purchasing power – is exchanged for satisfaction or utility. Purchasing power depends on a buyer’s income, credit and wealth. It is a mistake to believe that price is always money paid or some other financial consideration. In fact, trading of products – barter – is the oldest form of exchange. Money may or may not be involved.

Price is expressed in different terms for different exchanges. For instance, automobile insurance companies charge a premium for protection from the cost of injuries or repairs stemming from an automobile accident. An officer who stops you for speeding writes a ticket that requires you to pay a fine. If a lawyer defends you, a fee is charged, and if you use a railway or taxi, a fare is charged. A toll is charged for the use of bridges or turnpikes. Oil companies pay pipeline tariffs for oil transportation, and households pay electricity and gas tariffs.

Rent is paid for the use of equipment or an apartment. A commission is remitted to an agent for the sale of real estate. Dues are paid for membership in a club or group. A deposit is made to hold or lay away merchandise. A tip helps pay waitresses or waiters for their services. Interest is charged for the loan that you obtain, and taxes are paid for government services. Scientists are paid honorariums for research papers they write, and authors of bestsellers are paid royalties by their publishers. The value of many products is called price. Although price may be expressed in many different ways, it is important to remember that the purpose of this concept is to quantify and express the value of the items in the market exchange.

Source: Marketing. Concepts and Strategies. 6th edition.

William M. Pride and O.C. Ferrell,

Houghton Mifflin Company, 1989, p. 562.

Exercise 3*. Find in the text 8 English equivalents of the Russian words «цель», «задача» and make sentences of your own using them.

Exercise 4*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

The Product Life Cycle

A new product……… through a sequence of stages from introduction to growth, maturity, and decline. This sequence is known as the product life cycle and is associated with changes in the marketing situation, thus impacting the……….. and the…………

Introduction Stage

The firm seeks to build………. and develop a market for the product. The impact on the marketing mix is as follows:

– Product………. and quality level is established, and intellectual property protection such as……… and……….. are obtained.

– Pricing may be………… to build………. rapidly, or………… to recover…………..

– Place (distribution) is………. until consumers show acceptance of the product.

– Promotion is aimed at……… and………. Marketing………… seek to build product awareness and to educate potential consumers about the product.

Growth Stage

The firm seeks to build………….. and increase market share.

– Product quality is maintained and additional……….. and support services may be added.

– Pricing is maintained as the firm enjoys increasing……… with little competition.

– Place (distribution channels) are added as demand increases and customers accept the product.

– Promotion is aimed at broader………

Maturity Stage

The strong growth in sales……… Competition may appear with similar products. The primary………. at this point is to defend market share while……… profit.

– Product features may be enhanced to……… the product from that of competitors.

– Pricing may be lower because of new competition.

– Place (distribution) becomes more intensive and………. may be offered to encourage preference over competing products.

– Promotion ……… on product differentiation.

Decline Stage

As sales decline, the firm has several options:

–……… the product, possibly rejuvenating it by adding new features and finding new uses.

–Harvest the product —………. and continue to offer it, possibly to a…………

–……… the product, liquidating remaining……….. or selling it to another firm that is willing to continue the product.

The marketing mix decisions in the decline phase will depend on the selected strategy. For example, the price may be maintained if the product is harvested, or reduced drastically if liquidated.

Source: www.quickmba.com

Terms:

inventory, discontinue, market share, loyal niche segment, low penetration pricing, objective, incentives, diminishes, differentiate, trademarks, marketing mix, product awareness, branding, patents, high «skimming» pricing, selective, early adopters, brand preference, demand, maximizing, reduce costs, progresses, marketing strategy, development costs, audience, features, maintain, focuses, сommunications

Exercise 5. Translate into English.

Маркетинговая стратегия компании Soutec

Мобильные телефоны Soutec завоевали признание во многих странах Юго-Восточной Азии, Европы, Южной Америки и Африки. Политика компании характеризуется партнерскими и доверительными отношениями с зарубежными представительствами, поэтому специфике рынка страны и потребностям общества уделяется повышенное внимание.

В отношении российского рынка компания Soutec поставила перед собой цель до конца 2005 года достичь уровня продаж в 250 000 трубок и вывести на рынок 8—10 моделей телефонов разного ценового уровня. Таким образом, компания стремится наиболее полным образом удовлетворять потребности большинства потенциальных покупателей мобильных телефонов и соответствовать быстрым темпам развития рынка как в столице, так и в регионах.

Объективно оценивая ситуацию на российском рынке мобильных телефонов, компания приняла решение начать свою деятельность в крупнейших региональных городах России, параллельно подготавливая почву для выхода бренда Soutec в Питере и Москве. Маркетинговая активность компании Soutec будет направлена на такие города, как Нижний Новгород, Самара, Казань, Екатеринбург, Пермь, Челябинск, Новосибирск и Омск. В качестве рекламной поддержки планируется использовать наружную рекламу и активный промоушен в салонах сотовой связи.

Первостепенной задачей компания Soutec считает для себя построение сети обслуживания телефонов своего бренда. В рамках региональной стратегии данный вопрос приобретает особое значение. И пристальное внимание к данному вопросу лишний раз подтверждает серьезность намерений компании. В настоящее время компания Soutec ведет активную работу по организации сервисной поддержки с покрытием всей территории России. Компания налаживает сотрудничество с крупнейшими сервисными центрами, обслуживающими не менее 50 городов. Помимо широты охвата компания ставит своей задачей сокращение сроков ремонта и улучшение гарантийных условий для покупателей. Для решения данных вопросов в Москве был организован централизованный склад запчастей, поставки которых будут осуществляться не менее 2 раз в месяц.

На втором месте по значимости – разработка продуманной дистрибуторской политики. Планируется привлечь 3—4 крупнейшие компании, владеющие широкой розничной сетью и всеми необходимыми ресурсами для оптовых продаж с целью увеличения зоны покрытия. Дистрибьюторская политика компании основана на предоставлении максимально выгодных условий. Российским представительством была создана целая концепция защиты и поощрения дистрибуторов. Помимо высокой прибыльности бренда прежде всего для дистрибьюторов, особое место в этой программе отводится системе предоставления бонусов по таким категориям, как volume rebate, price protection, stock protection. Также компания Soutec предлагает широкий спектр возможностей по оплате и доставке, осуществляет ежеминутный контроль над розничными ценами и уделяет значительное внимание совместным маркетинговым акциям, направленным на увеличение продаж и привлечение внимания потребителей к мобильным телефонам Soutec.

Источник: www.soutec.ru

Lesson 8
The Past, Present and Future of Marketing

Read and translate the text and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

According to Kotler: The World’s Foremost Authority on Marketing Answers Your Questions

– In your books, you have pointed out that globalization, hypercompetition, and the Internet are reshaping markets and businesses. What effect are these dynamics having on marketing?

All three forces act to increase downward pressure on prices. Globalization means that companies will move their production to cheaper sites and bring products into a country at prices lower than those charged by the domestic sellers. Hypercompetition means that there are more suppliers competing for the same customer, leading to price cuts. And the Internet means that people can compare prices more quickly and move to the lowest-cost offer. The marketing challenge, then, is to find ways to maintain prices and profitability in the face of these macro trends. No country’s industry is going to hold on to its customers if it can’t continue to lead in offering the most value.

At the same time, various world regions are becoming more integrated and more protective. The members of a region are seeking preferential terms from the other members of the region. But artificial trade preferences cannot last long against a substantial deterioration in value.

– What are the main new trends in marketing?

My list would include:

– From make-and-sell marketing to sense-and-respond marketing

– From owning assets to owning brands

– From vertical integration to virtual integration (outsourcing)

– From mass marketing to customized marketing

– From operating only in the marketplace to also operating in cyberspace

– From pursuing market share to pursuing customer share

– From focusing on customer attraction to focusing on customer retention

– From transaction marketing to relationship marketing

– From customer acquisition to customer retention and satisfaction

– From mediated marketing to direct marketing

– From marketer monologue to customer dialogue

– From separated planning of communications to integrated marketing communications

– From single-channel marketing to multichannel marketing

– From product-centric marketing to customer-centric marketing

– From the marketing department doing the marketing to everyone in the company doing the marketing

– From exploiting suppliers and distributors to partnering with them

– How will organizations be affected by the substantial increase in the velocity of change?

Successful companies must practice trend watching and scenario planning. It never hurts to identify trends and speculate about their implications for the company. Companies can also benefit from imagining different future scenarios and planning responses to them. Royal Dutch/Shell attributes some of its profitability to the use of scenario planning.

– What are the major changes within the field of marketing since the famous 4Ps?

There have been countless changes. We have been shifting from mass marketing to segment marketing to niche marketing to one-to-one marketing. We have recognized the growing importance of service. We have improved our skills at brand building and brand asset management. We are making better use of Web marketing. We are developing new metrics for measuring the impact of marketing expenditures.

– What are the newest skills needed in marketing?

Marketing traditionally has relied on four marketing skills and tools: the sales force, advertising, sales promotion, and marketing research. Every company needs to master these tools. But marketing departments also need a whole new set of skills. Among them are brand building, customer relationship management, database marketing, telemarketing, experiential marketing, and profitability analysis by product, segment, channel, and customer.

– What is experiential marketing?

Marketers need to think more about delivering a positive experience for the customer than about simply selling a product or a service. Starbucks markets a «coffee experience» as customers sit in its attractive shops and escape from the hustle and bustle of the busy world. The famous Barnes & Noble chain of bookstores delivers an experience that includes chairs and tables for sitting and reading, evening lectures and performances, and a great coffee shop. REI, a retailer selling climbing equipment, includes a climbing wall and a simulated rainfall in its stores so that customers can test and experience the performance of its products. This suggests that marketers should think through the experience that customers have when they obtain a product or service and see how they can provide a simulation of this experience.

– What are metamarkets?

A metamarket facilitates all of the activities involved in obtaining an item for use or consumption. To buy a car, I must choose the car, finance it, and obtain insurance. Edmunds.com is an online metamarket where I can get information about all cars, search for the best dealer for the car that I want, arrange for a loan, and buy insurance. Another example is theknot.com, an online metamarket for obtaining everything connected with preparing a wedding, including gowns, invitations, gifts, etc.

– What are the most significant challenges marketers face today?

I would list the following challenges:

1. Getting better financial measures of the impact of marketing programs. Marketing has been lax in developing marketing metrics to show what particular expenditures and campaigns have achieved. CEOs are no longer satisfied with measures of how much awareness, knowledge, or preference has been created by marketing programs. They want to know how much sales, profit, and shareholder value has been created. One step in the right direction is at Coca-Cola, where its marketers must estimate the financial impacts of their programs before getting a budget and after spending the money. This will produce a financial mindset in Coca-Cola’s marketers.

2. Developing more integrated information about important customers. Customers come in contact with a company at various touchpoints: by e-mail, by snail mail, by phone, in person, and so on. Yet if these touchpoints are not recorded, the company won’t have a 360-degree view of a prospect or customer and therefore is handicapped in developing sound offerings and communications for that customer.

3. Getting marketing to be the company’s designer and driver of market strategy. Too much marketing today is 1P marketing; that is, marketing deals only with promotion, with other departments heavily determining the product, the price, and the place. I remember a major European airline at which the VP of marketing confessed that he doesn’t set the fare or the product conditions (food, staff, decor) or the flight schedules, but only the advertising and the sales force. How can marketing be effective if the 4Ps are not under unified planning and control?

4. Facing lower-cost/higher-quality competitors. As China continues its rapid growth, U.S. firms will face a repeat of the Japanese threat, which consisted of competing with Japanese companies that were able to offer better products at lower costs. This will force more U.S. companies to shift their production to China, and this will reduce jobs at home.

5. Coping with the increasing power and demands of mega-distributors. Mega-retailers such as Wal-Mart, Costco, Target, Office Depot, and others are commanding a larger share of the retail marketplace. Many mega-retailers are carrying store brands that are equal in quality to national brands and lower in price, thus forcing down manufacturers’ margins. National-brand companies feel more than ever at the mercy of mega-retailers and are desperately searching for defensive and offensive strategies.

– You say that the main economic problem plaguing companies is industry overcapacity. What are the main causes of this problem? How can companies cope with it?

Almost every industry suffers from overcapacity. The world auto industry could probably produce 30% more cars without adding another factory. The same can be said for the steel industry and many chemical industries. Customers are scarce, not products. Overcapacity is the result of companies’ overoptimism about economic prospects and about their prowess in the marketplace. I have seen many companies plan for a 10% increase in sales when the total market is growing by only 3%. When this happens, the result is overcapacity and hypercompetition. Hypercompetition can only result in falling prices. The main defenses include (1) building a superior brand, (2) developing more loyal customers who will pay a higher price, (3) and acquiring or merging with other companies to rationalize the supply.

– What is the difference between a competitive market and a hypercompetitive market?

Many markets have moved from being competitive markets to becoming hypercompetitive markets. In a competitive market, a company can usually sustain its market position and competitive advantage. In a hypercompetitive market, there is hardly any sustainable competitive advantage. Rapid technological change and globalization can destroy competitive advantages overnight. The only hope is to practice continuous improvement – some even say continuous breakthroughs. When Jack Welch was CEO of General Electric, he told his people: «Change or die!» Perhaps the only advantage a company can have is an ability to change faster than its competitors.

Companies, of course, should study other companies that have mastered certain processes, whether those be product development, customer retention, or order fulfillment. Benchmarking, however, has two forms: passive, in which one company copies the practices of another; and creative, in which one company copies and improves on a process seen at another company. Creative benchmarking is about bettering the best, not just copying the best.

– You write that the customer has become the hunter. What impact does that have on marketing strategies?

Customers now have the power. With the advent of the Internet, they have great amounts of information about brands, prices, product quality, features, and service at their disposal. This is in contrast to the past, when information was largely in the hands of the sellers and the cost of acquiring information was high for the buyers. Today the buyer of a car goes on the Internet, searches for product and price information, and comes armed with the facts to wrest a good price from the seller. The sellers who have the best chance to survive and prosper are those who have found ways, in the words of Jack Welch, to «keep giving the customers more for less… while maintaining a profit.»

– How can a company survive in an environment where the markets are changing faster than the marketing?

Not all companies can survive! This is evidenced by the high rate of bankruptcy and the rapid increase in M&As. When there is too much capacity, mergers help to rationalize that capacity. The companies that will do well will be those that can create and deliver the most value to customers. The task is to assess the trajectory of customer wants accurately.

Source: www.amanet.org, 2005

Essential Vocabulary

1. globalisation n – глобализация

2. site n – место, местонахождение; производственная или строительная площадка

3. trend n – тренд, тенденция

4. preferential terms – предпочтительные, наиболее благоприятные условия

5. retention n – удержание, сохранение, задержание

retain v – нанимать, удерживать, сохранять

retained a – удержанный, сохраненный; нераспределенный (о прибыли)

6. transaction (trans) n – сделка, операция

7. mediator n – посредник, ходатай

mediation n – посредничество, ходатайство, вмешательство с целью примирения

mediate v – посредничать, ходатайствовать

8. scenario n – сценарий

9. implication n – последствие; вовлечение; причастность; значение

implicate v – впутывать, вовлекать, подразумевать

10. expenditure n – расходы, затраты, расходная часть бюджета, статья расхода

expend v – тратить, расходовать, затрачивать

expendable a – потребляемый, расходуемый; невозвратимый, одноразового применения

11. tool n – инструмент

12. sales force – сбытовики

13. set n – комплект, набор, коллекция, серия, ряд, состав; компания, круг, партия; множество; строение, конфигурация; тенденция

set v – ставить, помещать, поставить; располагаться; сажать, надевать, вставлять; направлять, приготавливать, устанавливать, определять, назначать, ставить (задачу), подавать (пример), вводить, внедрять (модель)

14. facilitator n – способствующее (сделке) лицо

facilitate v – способствовать, облегчать (в некот. контекстах давать взятку)

15. measure n – мера, система измерений, единица измерения, мерка; мероприятие

measure v – измерять, мерить, отмерять, оценивать

16. metric n – мерило, измеритель

metric a – метрический

17. campaign n – кампания

18. prospect n – вид; потенциальный клиент; перспектива, будущее

prospecting n – поисковые работы (горн.)

prospect v – исследовать, разведывать, искать (клиентов, полезные ископаемые)

prospective а – будущий, предполагаемый, ожидаемый

19. retailer n – розничный торговец

retail a – розничный

20. capacity n – производственная мощность, способность, потенциал, функция

21. overcapacity n – переизбыток производственных мощностей

22. scarcity n – нехватка, недостаток, дефицит

scarce a – дефицитный, редкий (ресурс)

23. merger n – слияние

merge v – сливаться

24. benchmarking n – бенчмаркинг

25. mergers and acquisitions (M&A) – слияния и поглощения

Exercise 1*. Which of the following statements are not correct and why?

1. Globalization means that companies will bring products into a country at prices higher than those charged by the domestic sellers. 2. Hypercompetition means that there are less suppliers competing for the same customer, leading to price hikes. 3. The Internet means that people can compare prices more quickly and move to the lowest-cost offer. 4. Various world regions are becoming less integrated and less protective. 5. In the fast-changing world, it is useless to identify trends and speculate about their implications for the company. 6. Nowadays, marketing departments need a whole new set of skills. 7. Marketers need to think about profitably when selling a product or a service. 8. Marketing has been lax in developing marketing metrics to show what particular expenditures and campaigns have achieved. 9. The Japanese threat to the US companies meant competing with Japanese companies that were able to offer similar products at lower costs. 10. Today, both customers and products are scarce. 11. In a hypercompetitive market, there is hardly any sustainable competitive advantage. 12. In the past, information was largely in the hands of the sellers and the cost of acquiring information was high for the buyers.

Exercise 2*. Philip Kotler names different types of marketing. Find 19 categories of marketing in the text and explain what they mean.

Exercise 3*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

Benchmarking

Benchmark refers to a…… of best practice…….. Benchmarking refers to the search for the best practice that yields the benchmark performance, with emphasis on how you can……. the process to achieve…….. results.

Benchmarking is a process used in management and particularly……, in which companies……. various aspects of their business processes in relation to best practice, usually within their own…… This then allows companies to…… plans on how to…… such best practice. Benchmarking may be a…… event, but is often treated as a continuous process in which companies continually seek to…… their practices.

Benchmarks and benchmarking can provide you with facts to answer the questions about the…….. position of your company. They can provide you with…….. to show you what can be achieved. Perhaps more important, benchmarking can tell you how you can achieve the same type of results! In short, benchmarking gives you the external…….. and the best practices on which to base your evaluations and to…… your work processes.

All process improvement efforts require a sound methodology and……, and benchmarking is no different. You need to:

1. Set……. and define the……. of your efforts

2. Gain……. from your organization

3. Select a benchmarking…….

4……. benchmarking partners

5. Gather information (research……., benchmarking visits)

6. Distill the learning

7. Select ideas to…….

8……

9. Implement

There are essentially three types of benchmarking: strategic, data-based, and process-based benchmarking. They differ depending on the type of information you are trying to gather. Strategic Benchmarking looks at the….. companies use to…… Benchmarking to ensure improvements in business process performance generally…….. on uncovering how well other companies…….. in comparison with you and others, and how they…… this performance. This is the focus of Data-based and Process-based Benchmarking.

Benchmarking can be fraught with potential problems…….. from simple…….. to serious legal problems. To minimize the likelihood of these types of difficulties, we strongly recommend you to follow Benchmarking’s Golden Rule: treat your partner and their information the way you’d like them to treat you and yours.

Source: www.isixsigma.com

Terms:

achieve, compete, identify, pilot, focuses, competitive, support, one-off, ranging, industry, measure, scope, performance, misunderstanding, superior, implementation, surveys, apply, strategic management, approach, evaluate, develop, references, adopt, challenge, data, design, objectives, implement, strategies, perform

Exercise 4. Translate into English.

Филипп Котлер: «Коррупция противоречит философии маркетинга»

– Как изменился маркетинг за последние десять лет? Ведь многие российские компании существуют примерно столько, соответственно, знания маркетологов приобретались лет десять назад.

– За это время маркетинг прошел четыре основные стадии. Первая стадия характеризуется сильной «ориентацией на продукт». Это было время, когда производство не достигло еще того массового уровня, который мы имеем на данный момент, и количество товаров было ограничено. Соответственно, они пользовались спросом, и усилия по маркетингу сводились к минимуму. Вторая стадия – так называемая «ориентация на продажи» – наступила тогда, когда производство достигло определенного уровня, рынок наполнился товарами, а компании начали вести активную торговлю. Третья стадия, известная как стадия «сегментной ориентации», ознаменовала переход к продажам, направленным не на весь рынок, как это было ранее, а на определенные сегменты с совершенно конкретными задачами. Компании адаптировали товары, услуги и методы взаимодействия с потребителями к конкретным целевым сегментам рынка. И, наконец, четвертая стадия – стадия «ориентации на потребителя». Она наступила тогда, когда компании решили собрать и использовать максимально полезным способом информацию о каждом индивидуальном участнике целевого сегмента рынка.

– Существует ли в профессиональной среде правильное понимание самого термина «маркетинг»? Насколько часто встречается подмена этого понятия другими, смежными?

– На самом деле у маркетинга множество определений, которые отделяют его от смежных понятий просто рекламы или просто продажи. А какого-либо универсального определения не существует. Мое определение таково: «Маркетинг – это искусство и наука правильно выбирать целевой рынок, привлечь, сохранить и нарастить количество потребителей посредством создания у покупателя уверенности, что он представляет собой наивысшую ценность для компании».

– Общеизвестно, что российская экономика довольно сильно коррумпирована. Успешность компании зачастую зависит не от профессионализма ее менеджеров, а от ее связей с госструктурами и правоохранительными органами. В этой связи будет ли здесь работать традиционная теория маркетинга и должны ли компании корректировать свою стратегию в соответствии с этими реалиями?

– Коррупция самым отрицательным образом влияет на естественный процесс конкуренции. В ситуации стандартных рыночных отношений покупатель делает свой выбор в пользу той или иной компании, основываясь на оптимальном сочетании цены и качества. Например, логичным кажется, что компания, которая решила сделать закупку грузовиков для осуществления поставок своих товаров, приобретает машины той марки, которая наилучшим образом отвечает ее потребностям и обеспечивает оптимальное соотношение цены и качества. Однако, если человек, ответственный за покупку, получает взятку и делает выбор в пользу товаров худшего качества, компания несет соответствующие убытки. Таким образом, коррупция – это явление, противоречащее всей философии маркетинга, философии оптимизации эффективности производства и продаж. Словом, там, где существует коррупция, конкуренты по рынку должны понимать это и стараться избегать таких механизмов, не способствовать их распространению.

– Как вы считаете, какое место в компании должен занимать отдел маркетинга? Какой уровень решений должен находиться в его компетенции?

– Я считаю, что отдел маркетинга должен играть ключевую роль в разработке целостной стратегии предприятия. Любая бизнес-стратегия должна отталкиваться от конкретного рынка, опираясь на опыт тех, кто с ним знаком, – отдела маркетинга, ведь он имеет заведомо лучшее представление о потребностях покупателей, конкурентах и посредниках компании. К сожалению, очень большое количество предприятий не использует по назначению ресурсы, которыми располагает отдел маркетинга. Компании стремятся продать то, что уже решили производить, и тратят на это много усилий и средств. Таким образом, отдел маркетинга вынужден заниматься промоушен, а не собственно маркетингом. При этом не следует забывать, что понятие маркетинга включает в себя не одно P (promotion), а четыре – product, price, place, promotion (продукт, цена, место, продвижение).

– Какие только зарождающиеся новые тенденции вы видите в маркетинге? В настоящее время развитие получают интернет-технологии, а что, по-вашему, будет дальше?

– Новые технологии продолжают открывать новые возможности перед маркетологами. Полагаю, продолжит расти значение «маркетинга по базам данных» (database marketing), будет развиваться «маркетинг отношений с клиентами» (customer relationship marketing, CRM). Можно увидеть и тенденцию к дальнейшему развитию автоматизированных продаж и маркетинга без участия человека. Компании придут к использованию маркетинговых «пультов управления», чтобы контролировать все маркетинговые операции. А традиционная реклама будет постепенно вытесняться Интернетом и связями с общественностью.

Источник: Интервью «Независимой газете» 03.11.2003. www.6n.ru

Lesson 9
Strategic Management Models

Read and translate the text and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

The BCG Growth-Share Matrix

The BCG Growth-Share Matrix is a portfolio-planning model developed by Bruce Henderson of the Boston Consulting Group in the early 1970s. It is based on the product life-cycle theory that can be used to determine what priorities should be given in the product portfolio of a business unit. To ensure long-term value creation, a company should have a portfolio of products that contains both high-growth products in need of cash inputs and low-growth products that generate a lot of cash.

The matrix proceeds from the assumption that a company’s business units can be classified into four categories based on combinations of market growth and market share relative to the largest competitor, hence the name «growth-share». Market growth serves as a proxy for industry attractiveness, and relative market share serves as a proxy for competitive advantage. The growth-share matrix maps the business units’ positions within these two important determinants of profitability.

This framework assumes that an increase in relative market share will result in an increase in the generation of cash. This assumption often is true because of the experience curve; increased relative market share implies that the firm is moving forward on the experience curve relative to its competitors, thus developing a cost advantage. A second assumption is that a growing market requires investment in assets to increase capacity and therefore results in the consumption of cash. Thus the position of a business on the growth-share matrix provides an indication of its cash generation and its cash consumption.

The cash required by rapidly growing business units could be obtained from the firm’s other business units that were at a more mature stage and generating significant cash. By investing to become the market share leader in a rapidly growing market, the business unit could move along the experience curve and develop a cost advantage. From this reasoning, the BCG Growth-Share Matrix was born.

The four categories of the matrix are:

Dogs. Dogs have a low market share and a low growth rate and thus neither generate nor consume a large amount of cash. However, dogs are cash traps because of the money tied up in a business that has little potential. Such businesses are candidates for divestiture.

Question Marks. Question Marks are growing rapidly and thus consume large amounts of cash, but because they have low market shares they do not generate much cash. A question mark has the potential to gain market share and become a star, and eventually a cash cow when the market growth slows. If the question mark does not succeed in becoming the market leader, then after years of cash consumption it will degenerate into a dog when the market growth declines. Question marks must be analyzed carefully in order to determine whether they are worth the investment required to grow market share.

Stars. Stars generate large amounts of cash because of their strong relative market share, but also consume large amounts of cash because of their high growth rates; therefore the cash in each direction approximately nets out. If a star can maintain its large market share, it will become a cash cow when the market growth rate declines. The portfolio of a diversified company always should have stars that will become the next cash cows and ensure future cash generation.

Cash Cows. As leaders in a mature market, cash cows exhibit a return on assets that is greater than the market growth rate, and thus generate more cash than they consume. Such business units should be «milked», extracting the profits and investing as little cash as possible. Cash cows provide the cash required to turn question marks into market leaders, to cover the administrative costs of the company, to fund R&D, to service the corporate debt, and to pay dividends to shareholders. Because the cash cow generates a relatively stable cash flow, its value can be accurately determined by calculating the present value of its cash stream using a discounted cash flow analysis.

Under the growth-share matrix model, as an industry matures and its growth rate declines, a business unit will become either a cash cow or a dog, determined solely by whether it had become the market leader during the period of high growth.

While originally developed as a model for resource allocation among the various business units in a corporation, the growth-share matrix also can be used for resource allocation among products within a single business unit.

The BCG matrix can help understand a frequently made strategic mistake: having a one-size-fits-all approach to strategy such as a generic growth target or a generic return on capital for the entire corporation.

In such a scenario:

Cash Cows will beat their profit target easily; their managers have an easy job and are often praised anyhow.

Dogs fight an impossible battle and, even worse, investments are made now and then in hopeless attempts to «turn the business around».

As a result, Question Marks and Stars get mediocre investment funds. In this way they are unable to ever become cash cows and earn money.

Limitations

The BCG matrix once was used widely, but has since faded from popularity as more comprehensive models have been developed. Some of its weaknesses are:

Market growth rate is only one factor in industry attractiveness, and relative market share is only one factor in competitive advantage. The growth-share matrix overlooks many other factors in these two important determinants of profitability.

The framework assumes that each business unit is independent of the others. In some cases, a business unit that is a «dog» may be helping other business units gain a competitive advantage.

The matrix depends heavily upon the breadth of the definition of the market. A business unit may dominate its small niche, but have very low market share in the overall industry. In such a case, the definition of the market can make the difference between a dog and a cash cow.

While its importance has diminished, the BCG matrix still can serve as a simple tool for viewing a corporation’s business portfolio at a glance, and may serve as a starting point for discussing resource allocation among strategic business units (SBUs).

Source: www.netmba.com

The GE/McKinsey Matrix

The GE/McKinsey Matrix is a later and more advanced form of the BCG Matrix. It is a model to perform business portfolio analysis on the Strategic Business Units of a corporation. A business portfolio is the collection of SBUs that make up a corporation. The optimal business portfolio is one that fits perfectly to the company’s strengths and helps to exploit the most attractive industries or markets. A SBU can either be a midsize company or a division of a large corporation that formulates its own business level strategy and has separate objectives from the parent company.

The aim of a portfolio analysis is to:

– analyze its current business portfolio and decide which SBUs should be allocated more or less investment;

– develop growth strategies for adding new products and businesses to the portfolio;

– decide which businesses or products should be divested.

The GE/McKinsey Matrix is more sophisticated than the BCG Matrix:

1. Market (industry) attractiveness replaces market growth as the dimension of industry attractiveness. Market attractiveness includes a broader range of factors than just the market growth rate that can determine the attractiveness of an industry/market.

2. Competitive strength replaces market share as the dimension by which the competitive position of each SBU is assessed. Competitive strength likewise includes a broader range of factors than just the market share that can determine the competitiveness of a SBU.

3. The GE/McKinsey Matrix works with a 3*3 grid, while the BCG matrix has only 2*2.

SBUs are portrayed as a circle plotted in the GE/McKinsey Matrix whereby:

– The size of the circles represents the market size

– The size of the pies represents the market share of the SBUs

– Arrows represent the direction and the movement of the SBUs in the future.

A six-step approach to implementation of portfolio analysis using the GE/McKinsey Matrix could look like this:

1. Specify drivers of each dimension.

2. Weight drivers.

3. Score SBU’s each driver.

4. Multiply weights by scores for each SBU.

5. View resulting graph and interpret it.

6. Perform a review/sensitivity analysis using adjusted other weights and scores.

Some important limitations of the GE/McKinsey Matrix are:

– aggregation of the indicators is difficult;

– core competencies are not represented;

– interrelations between SBUs are not considered.

Source: www.valuebasedmanagement.net

Essential Vocabulary

1. product life-cycle – жизненный цикл товара

2. business unit – бизнес-единица

3. proxy n – доверенность; лицо, уполномоченное выступать за другого по доверенности; ориентир

4. industry n – промышленность, индустрия; отрасль промышленности

industrial a – промышленный, производственный; промышленная корпорация (США) – любая корпорация, которая не может быть отнесена к коммунальным, финансовым или транспортным компаниям

5. framework n – рамки

6. experience curve – кривая опыта

7. maturity n – зрелость; срок погашения (ценной бумаги), срок кредита

mature v – зреть; погашаться

mature a – зрелый; подлежащий оплате ввиду наступившего срока погашения

8. divestiture n – лишение права; реализация актива путем продажи

9. net a – чистый, нетто

net out v – вычитать, определять нетто-позицию, взаимозачитывать

10. return on assets (ROA) – доходность активов

11. service v debt – обслуживать долг

12. dividend (div) n – дивиденд

13. shareholder n – акционер

14. cash flow – денежный поток

15. present value – приведенная ценность

16. discounted cash flow (DCF) – дисконтированный денежный поток

17. allocation n – распределение, назначение; ассигнование; размещение

allocate v– распределять, назначать; ассигновать; размещать

18. one-size-fits-all – единый для всех, общий

19. generic a – родовой, общий, характерный для определенного рода или группы

20. fund n – фонд, финансовое средство, сумма денег

fund v – финансировать

21. strategic business unit (SBU) – стратегическая бизнес-единица

22. parent company – материнская компания

23. return n – возврат; доходность; налоговая декларация

24. entry barrier – барьер на выход в отрасль или на рынок

25. competency n – компетентность, умение, способность; компетенция

26. access n – доступ

access v – иметь доступ

accessible a – доступный

27. score n – счет, задолженность, долг; причина, основание; количество набранных очков; удача; истинные факты

score v – подсчитывать очки, вести счет; выигрывать, получать преимущество

28. sensitivity analysis – анализ чувствительности

29. core competency – основная сфера компетенции

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. What kind of product portfolio should a company have to ensure long-term value creation? 2. How can business units be categorized? 3. What are the characteristics of the Dog Business Units? 4. What is the potential future of Question Marks? 5. What are the specifics of Stars? 6. What is the function of Cash Cows in a company? 7. Why is it unadvisable to have a one-size-fits-all approach to strategy? 8. What are the limitations of the BCG matrix? 9. What is the basis of the GE/McKinsey matrix? 10. What is the aim of the portfolio analysis? 11. Why is the GE/McKinsey matrix more sophisticated than the BCG matrix? 12. What are the external factors that affect market attractiveness? 13. What are the internal factors that affect competitive strength? 14. What approach can be used to implement the portfolio analysis? 15. What are the limitations of the GE/McKinsey matrix?

Exercise 2. Analyze your own company using the BCG Matrix and the GE/McKinsey Matrix.

Exercise 3*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

Core Competence

The Core Competence model of Hamel and Prahalad is a……… model that starts the strategy process by thinking about the…….. strengths of an organization.

The Core Competence model states that in the long run competitiveness derives from an ability to build a…………, at…….. and more speedily than competitors. The real sources of advantage are to be found in management’s abilities to……… corporate-wide technologies and production skills into competencies, through which individual businesses can……. quickly to changing circumstances. A Core Competence can be any combination of specific, inherent, integrated and applied knowledge……. and attitudes.

Prahalad and Hamel dismiss the……….. perspective as a viable approach to corporate strategy. In their view, the……….. of the Strategic Business Unit is now clearly an anachronism. Hamel and Prahalad argue that a….. should be built around a core of shared competencies.

……….. must use and help to further develop the CCs. The corporate center should not be just another layer of accounting, but must……… by improving the strategic architecture that guides the process of……….

Three tests for identifying a Сore Сompetence

Provides potential……. to a wide variety of markets.

Makes a significant contribution to the benefits of the products as…….. by the customer.

A CC should be difficult for……… to imitate.

Building a Core Competence

A Core Competence is built through a process of continuous improvement and……… It should constitute the…….. for corporate strategy. At this level, the goal is to build………. in the design and development of a particular class of product functionality.

Once top management with the help of SBUs managers have………. an all-embracing Core Competence, it must ask businesses to find the projects and the people that are closely connected with it. Corporate auditors should……. an audit of the location, number and quality of the people related to the CC. CC carriers should be brought together frequently to…… ideas.

Source: www.valuebasedmanagement.com

Terms:

adapt, identified, focus, share, competitors, enhancement, corporate strategy, world leadership, primacy, perform, access, competence building, core, skills, portfolio, core competence, consolidate, business units, add value, perceived, lower cost, corporation

Exercise 4. Make 2 sentences with each term.

core – non-core:

– competence,

– assets,

– activities,

– business.

Exercise 5. Describe the core competence of your company.

Exercise 6. Translate into English.

Что могут и чего не могут управленческие модели

Вопрос о месте управленческих моделей в организации процесса стратегического планирования и их полезности в обеспечении эффективного функционирования компании до сих пор не закрыт. Причем споры о целесообразности использования любых таких моделей неизменно скатываются в одну и ту же плоскость. Широкая часть делового сообщества считает их неотъемлемой частью управления своим бизнесом. Другая, не менее многочисленная, уверяет, что данный инструментарий, завернутый в «громкие слова», – ловкий ход консультантов по рекламированию своей деятельности и выставлению напоказ своих профессиональных навыков. Кто из них прав, судить трудно, скорее всего истина, как всегда, лежит где-то посередине. Так что же необходимо знать и учитывать при использовании данного класса моделей?

Управленческие модели – это упрощенная картина деловой бизнес-среды.

Любая управленческая модель учитывает лишь те элементы окружающего мира, которые оказывают непосредственное влияние на функционирование конкретной отрасли либо компании, т. е. являются значимыми при решении конкретной задачи. Теми элементами, которые не значимы, в моделях, как правило, пренебрегают. Кроме того, исходя из соображений экономии операционных и аппаратных ресурсов определенному лимитированию подлежит и количество включаемых в нее входных параметров. К примеру, в Бостонской матрице анализируются доли, занимаемые компанией в определенных сегментах рынка, по отношению к рыночным долям конкурентов. При этом анализу подлежат только имеющиеся на рынке продукты и услуги, учет возможности анализа появления новых продуктов или услуг не предусматривается. Аналогично модель БКГ не позволяет анализировать возможные в будущем действия тех или иных участников рынка.

Вывод: нельзя принимать решения, базирующиеся на анализе работы только одной модели.

Каждая управленческая модель несет в себе черты «своей» экономической эпохи. В структуре любой модели, как правило, еще на стадии ее разработки, закладываются определенные предположения, касающиеся экономических условий (как текущих, так и будущих), в рамках которых будет протекать деятельность организации. Смена привычного делового климата, хотя далеко не всегда приводящая к изменению валидности выходных результатов, тем не менее ставит под вопрос степень адекватности данных результатов в новых экономических условиях.

Так, сегодня любой отдельный стартап может внести принципиально существенные коррективы в условия функционирования целого ряда отраслей (в качестве примера можно привести тот же Amazon.com), вследствие чего вполне естественно, что происходящие изменения в определенной мере ограничивают возможности адекватного использования многих «старых» моделей.

В результате, несмотря на сохранение общих принципов решения задач, таких как, например, удержание старых и привлечение новых клиентов путем низкой цены или высокого качества продукции, рассмотренных в рамках обобщенной теории Портера, далеко не означает, что данная модель полностью учитывает особенности именно сегодняшних реалий. Новые технологии и концепции продвижения аналогичной продукции/услуг в кратчайший промежуток времени могут кардинально нарушить позиции ценового лидера. Аналогично организация, специализирующаяся на отдельном виде товара, может быстро утратить свои конкурентные преимущества в случае копирования конкурентами ее продуктовой линейки и сервисного обслуживания.

Вывод: никогда не следует слепо использовать модели, руководствуясь лишь успешностью их применения в прошлом.

(Продолжение см. в уроке 10)

Источник: 20.09.2005, www.franklin-grant.ru

Lesson 10
Strategic Management Analysis

Read and translate the text and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

SWOT Analysis

A scan of the internal and external environment is an important part of the strategic planning process. Environmental factors internal to the firm usually can be classified as strengths (S) or weaknesses (W), and those external to the firm can be classified as opportunities (O) or threats (T). Such an analysis of the strategic environment is referred to as a SWOT analysis.

The SWOT analysis provides information that is helpful in matching the firm’s resources and capabilities to the competitive environment in which it operates. As such, it is instrumental in strategy formulation and selection.

SWOT Analysis Framework

Strengths. A firm’s strengths are its resources and capabilities that can be used as a basis for developing a competitive advantage. Examples of such strengths include:

– patents or certain expertise;

– strong brand names;

– good reputation among customers;

– cost advantages from proprietary know-how;

– exclusive access to high grade natural resources;

– favorable access to distribution networks.

Weaknesses. The absence of certain strengths may be viewed as a weakness. For example, each of the following may be considered weaknesses:

– lack of patent protection;

– a weak brand name;

– poor reputation among customers;

– high cost structure;

– lack of access to the best natural resources;

– lack of access to key distribution channels.

In some cases, a weakness may be the flip side of a strength. Take the case in which a firm has a large amount of manufacturing capacity. While this capacity may be considered a strength that competitors do not share, it also may be considered a weakness if the large investment in manufacturing capacity prevents the firm from reacting quickly to changes in the strategic environment.

Opportunities. The external environmental analysis may reveal certain new opportunities for profit and growth. Examples of such opportunities include:

– an unfulfilled customer need;

– arrival of new technologies;

– loosening of regulations;

– removal of international trade barriers.

Threats. Changes in the external environment also may present threats to the firm. Examples of such threats include:

– shift in consumer tastes away from the firm’s products;

– emergence of substitute products;

– new regulations;

– increased trade barriers.

The SWOT Matrix

A firm should not necessarily pursue the most lucrative opportunities. Rather, it may have a better chance at developing a competitive edge by identifying a fit between the firm’s strengths and upcoming opportunities. In some cases, the firm can overcome a weakness in order to prepare itself to pursue a compelling opportunity.

To develop strategies that take into account SWOT profile, a matrix of these factors can be constructed.

SWOT Matrix

– S-O strategies pursue opportunities that are a good fit to the company’s strengths.

– W-O strategies overcome weaknesses to pursue opportunities.

– S-T strategies identify ways that the firm can use its strengths to reduce its vulnerability to external threats.

– W-T strategies establish a defensive plan to prevent the firm’s weaknesses from making it highly susceptible to external threats.

Source: www.quickmba.com

The Value Chain

To analyze the specific activities through which firms can create a competitive advantage, it is useful to model the firm as a chain of value-creating activities. Michael Porter identified a set of interrelated generic activities common to a wide range of firms. The resulting model is known as the value chain:

Primary Value Chain Activities

Inbound logistics > Operations > Outbound logistics > Marketing & Sales > Service

The goal of these activities is to create value that exceeds the cost of providing the product or service, thus generating a profit margin.

– Inbound logistics include the receiving, warehousing, and inventory control of input materials.

– Operations are the value-creating activities that transform the inputs into the final product.

– Outbound logistics are the activities required to get the finished product to the customer, including warehousing, order fulfillment, etc.

– Marketing & Sales are those activities associated with getting buyers to purchase the product, including channel selection, advertising, pricing, etc.

– Service activities are those that maintain and enhance the product’s value including customer support, after-sale services, etc.

Primary activities may be vital in developing a competitive advantage. For example, logistics activities are critical for a provider of distribution services, and service activities may be the key focus for a firm offering on-site maintenance contracts for office equipment. These five categories are generic and include specific activities that vary by industry.

Support Activities

The primary value chain activities described above are facilitated by support activities. Porter identified four generic categories of support activities, the details of which are industry-specific:

– Procurement – the function of purchasing the raw materials and other inputs used in the value-creating activities.

– Technology Development – includes R&D, process automation, and other technology development used to support the value-chain activities.

– Human Resource Management – the activities associated with recruiting, development and compensation of employees.

– Firm Infrastructure – includes activities such as finance, legal, quality management, etc.

Support activities are often viewed as «overhead», but some firms successfully have used them to develop a competitive advantage, for example, to develop a cost advantage through innovative management of information systems.

Value-Chain Analysis

In order to better understand the activities for a competitive advantage, one can begin with the generic value chain and then identify the relevant firm-specific activities. Process flows can be mapped, and these flows used to isolate the individual value-creating activities.

Once the discrete activities are defined, linkages between activities should be identified. A linkage exists if the performance or cost of one activity affects that of another. Competitive advantage may be obtained by optimizing and coordinating linked activities.

The value chain also is useful in outsourcing decisions. Understanding the linkages between activities can lead to more optimal make-or-buy decisions that can result in either a cost advantage or a differentiating advantage.

The Value System

The firm’s value chain links to the value chain of upstream suppliers and downstream buyers. The result is a larger stream of activities known as the value system. The development of a competitive advantage depends not only on the firm-specific value chain, but also on the value system of which the firm is a part.

Source: www.quickmba.com

PEST Analysis

A PEST Analysis is an analysis of the external macro-environment that affects all firms. PEST is an acronym for the Political, Economic, Social and Technological factors of the external macro-environment. Such external factors are usually beyond the firm’s control and sometimes present themselves as threats. For this reason, some say that «pest» is an appropriate term for these factors. However, changes in the external environment also create new opportunities and the letters sometimes are rearranged to construct the more optimistic term of STEP analysis.

Many macro-environmental factors are country-specific and a PEST analysis will need to be performed for all countries of interest.

Political Analysis

–Political stability

–Risk of military invasion

–Risk of nationalization

–Legal framework for contract enforcement

–Intellectual property protection

–Trade regulations & tariffs

–Favored trading partners

–Anti-trust laws

–Pricing regulations

–Taxation system – tax rates and incentives

–Wage legislation – minimum wage and overtime

–Work week

–Mandatory employee benefits

–Industrial safety regulations

–Product labeling requirements

Economic Analysis

–Type of economic system in countries of operation

–Government intervention in the free market

–Comparative advantages of host country

–Exchange rates and stability of host country currency

–Efficiency of financial markets

–Infrastructure quality

–Skill level of workforce

–Labor costs

–Business cycle stage (e.g. prosperity, recession, recovery)

–Economic growth rate

–Disposable income

–Unemployment rate

–Inflation rate

–Interest rates

Social Analysis

–Demographics

–Class structure

–Education

–Culture (gender roles, etc.)

–Entrepreneurial spirit

–Attitudes (health, environmental consciousness, etc.)

–Leisure interests

Technological Analysis

–Recent technological developments

–Technology’s impact on product offering

–Impact on cost structure

–Impact on value chain structure

–Rate of technological diffusion

The number of macro-environmental factors is virtually unlimited. In practice, the firm must prioritize and monitor those factors that influence the industry. Even so, it may be difficult to forecast future trends with an acceptable level of accuracy. In this regard, the firm may turn to scenario planning techniques to deal with high level of uncertainty in important macro-environmental variables.

Source: www.netmba.com

Essential Vocabulary

1. SWOT Analysis – анализ сильных и слабых сторон, возможностей и угроз

2. expertise n – специальные знания, компетентность, эрудиция; экспертиза

3. proprietor n – собственник, владелец

proprietary a – собственнический, составляющий собственность

4. know-how n – ноу-хау

5. high-grade a – высокого уровня, высокого качества

6. shift n – смена, часы работы; сдвиг, перемещение; средство

shift v – сдвигаться, перемещаться; менять, изменять; убирать

7. substitution n – замена, замещение, субституция

substitute v – заменять

substitute a – взаимозаменяемый, субститут

8. profile n – профиль, очертание; краткий очерк, краткое описание

9. value chain – цепочка ценности

10. logistics n – логистика, материально-техническое снабжение

11. warehouse n – склад

12. after-sale services – послепродажное обслуживание

13.specific a – специфический, удельный, особый, характерный; конкретный, определенный

14. support activities – вспомогательная деятельность

15. procurement n – закупки, приобретение, материально-техническое обеспечение; контракт на поставку

procure v – доставать, добывать, приобретать, закупать, снабжать

16. raw materials – сырье

17. Human Resource Management (HRM) – управление трудовыми ресурсами

18. recruitment n – набор кадров, комплектование личным составом

recruiter n – агент по набору кадров

recruit v – набирать кадры

19. overheads n – накладные расходы

20.discrete а– прерывистый, дискретный, разрозненный; оторванный, отвлеченный

21. make-or-buy decision – решение производить или покупать

22. differentiation n – дифференциация, дифференцирование, установление различий, разделение; специализация

differentiate v – дифференцировать, устанавливать различия

23. upstream n – в нефтяном и газовом бизнесе – геологоразведка и добыча, в более широком смысле – производство (товаров) или генерирование (электроэнергии)

24. downstream n – в нефтяном и газовом бизнесе – переработка и сбыт, в более широком смысле – дистрибуция и сбыт

25. PEST (Political, Economic, Social, Technological) analysis – анализ политических, экономических, социальных и технологических факторов

26. enforcement n – давление, принуждение; осуществление; наблюдение за проведением в жизнь, принудительное взыскание

enforcer n – лицо, претворяющее закон в жизнь; служитель правопорядка

enforce v – принуждать, взыскивать; приводить в исполнение, проводить в жизнь

enforceable a – осуществимый, поддающийся проведению в жизнь; обеспеченный правовой санкцией, имеющий исковую силу

27. intellectual property – интеллектуальная собственность

28. anti-trust law – антитрестовский закон

29. overtime n – сверхурочная работа

30. label n – ярлык, наклейка, этикетка, бирка, марка

labeling n – классификация, наклеивание этикетки или ярлыка, маркирование

label v – наклеивать этикетку или ярлык, маркировать

31. intervention n – интервенция, вмешательство

intervene v – вмешиваться

32. host country – принимающая страна

33. exchange rate – обменный (валютный) курс

34. business cycle – цикл деловой активности

35. prosperity n – процветание

prosper v – процветать

prosperous a – процветающий

36. recovery n – подъем экономической активности после рецессии; амортизация издержек, возмещение; взыскание; остаточная стоимость фиксированного актива после амортизации; повышение курса (валюты или ценных бумаг); оживление

recover v – оживляться; получать обратно; выздоравливать; наверстывать, возмещать; выправляться; излечивать; собирать; взыскивать; выигрывать (дело)

recoverable a – возместимый, поправимый, излечимый; извлекаемый (о запасах)

37. disposable income – располагаемый доход

38. environmental consciousness – экологическая сознательность

39. diffusion n – диффузия, проникновение, распространение, рассредоточение

diffuse v – распространяться, рассредоточиваться

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. Why is SWOT Analysis useful in the strategic planning process? 2. What can be considered a company’s strength? 3. What are its weaknesses and how do they interact with strengths? 4. What opportunities may the external environment analysis reveal? 5. What changes in the external environment may present threats to the firm? 6. How can a firm develop its competitive edge? 7. What are the activities that comprise the value chain? 8. What specific activities can five generic activities include? 9. What are the support activities and what is their role in value creation? 10. For what decisions is the value chain useful? 11. What is the role of the value system? 12. What is the essence of the PEST Analysis? 13. Why should PEST Analysis be performed for all countries of interest? 14. Is it possible to accurately forecast future trends?

Exercise 2. Explain the meaning of the word «profile» in the following contexts and make your own sentences with this word along the same lines.

1) Kakha Bendukidze, a high-profile business executive, went into politics.

2) Information from competitor analysis can be compiled into a response profile of possible moves that might be made by the competitor.

3) Because of the high level of risk generally associated with the emerging markets, investment recommendations of financial advisors are limited to clients with an appropriate aggressive investment profile.

4) Recently, Russian company share prices have been going mostly up, while their risk profile has been coming down.

Exercise 3. Make a SWOT Analysis of Gazprom, the best-known Russian company. You can get all necessary information at www.gazprom.ru.

Exercise 4. A foreign company wants to launch business in Russia. You are strategic advisor to its CEO, and he asks you to perform a PEST Analysis of the country and make a conclusion about threats and opportunities of doing business in Russia.

Exercise 5*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

Competitor Analysis

In formulating………., managers must consider the strategies of the firm’s competitors. While in highly………… commodity industries the moves of any single……… may be less important, in……… industries competitor analysis becomes a vital part of…………

Competitor analysis has two primary activities: 1) obtaining information about important competitors, and 2) using that information to…….. competitor behavior. The……… of competitor analysis is to understand:

–with which competitors to compete,

–competitors’ strategies and planned actions,

–how competitors might react to a firm’s actions,

–how to influence competitor’s behavior to the firm’s own advantage.

Casual knowledge about competitors usually is insufficient in competitor analysis. Rather, competitors should be analyzed systematically, using organized competitor……….-gathering to compile a wide…….. of information so that well informed………….. can be made.

Competitor Analysis Framework

Michael Porter presented a framework for analyzing competitors. This framework is based on the following four key aspects of a competitor:

–competitor’s objectives,

–competitor’s assumptions,

–competitor’s strategy,

–competitor’s capabilities.

Objectives and assumptions are what……… the competitor, and strategy and capabilities are what the competitor is doing or is capable of doing. Information from an analysis of the competitor’s objectives, assumptions, strategy, and capabilities can be compiled into a………… of possible moves that might be made by the competitor. This profile includes both potential……….. and………. moves. The specific moves and their expected strength can be………. using information gleaned from the analysis.

The result of the competitor analysis should be an improved ability to predict the competitor’s behavior and even to……….. it to the firm’s advantage.

Source: www.netmba.com

Terms:

leverage, player, intelligence, strategy decisions, range, predict, business strategy, response profile, fragmented, estimated, offensive, concentrated, strategic planning, goal, drive, defensive

Exercise 6. Translate into English.

Что могут и чего не могут управленческие модели (продолжение урока 9)

И, наконец, наиболее существенный риск – использование моделей в качестве дани существующей моде. Порой отдельный труд авторитетного эксперта способен вызвать массовый ажиотаж в умах руководителей компаний самых разнообразных отраслей экономики. Наглядный пример – диверсификация. По мере ее популяризации компании в массовом порядке принялись усиленно расширять свое присутствие как в соседних, так и в отдаленных отраслях экономики с целью диверсифицировать свои риски и приумножить свою прибыль за счет возникающей синергии. Ряд таких компаний превратился в громоздкие неповоротливые структуры, неспособные оперативно реагировать на текущие экономические реалии. В итоге на смену принципу распыления внимания на все и всех пришла мода на противоположную теорию «ключевых компетенций». Руководствуясь новыми принципами, все филиалы и подразделения, не задействованные в ключевом направлении бизнеса, спускались с молотка либо ликвидировались. Отдельные компании сократили свою деятельность до уровня головной организации, отдав на аутсорсинг все прочие направления, несмотря на то что многие из них являлись ключевыми в свете развития основного вида бизнеса. Лишь позже, по прошествии определенного периода времени, было обнаружено, что управление аутсорсинговыми процессами не в пример сложнее управления теми же процессами, происходящими внутри одной компании.

Вывод: нет универсальных моделей, подходящих всем и в любой ситуации.

Пока только одни недостатки. А как насчет сильных сторон управленческих моделей? Несмотря на перечисленные выше недостатки, в современном быстро изменяющемся деловом мире управленческие модели способны стать неоценимым подспорьем для менеджмента в плане организации процесса систематического анализа информационных потоков. Единственное, что следует помнить, – управленческие модели не в состоянии самостоятельно принимать решения: они лишь обеспечивают аналитическую базу, способствующую принятию обоснованных решений.

Время от времени имеет смысл пересматривать набор моделей, используемых в рамках анализа деятельности компании или отрасли. Такую инвентаризацию целесообразно осуществлять посредством «мозгового штурма», позволяющего свести воедино различные точки зрения руководителей раздельных отделов или подразделений компании. При этом следует помнить, что, если вдруг оказывается, что какая-либо модель не вполне приемлема для описания некой конкретной ситуации (например, модель пяти сил Портера для анализа темпов роста отрасли в экономике), это вовсе не означает, что данная модель неприемлема для организации в принципе. Комбинация различных моделей позволяет компенсировать недостатки одних за счет достоинств других. Например, PEST-анализ может дополнить модель БКГ, указав, какие события могут произойти в будущем и тем или иным образом повлиять на деятельность компании.

Общий вывод:

Инструменты управления могут помочь лучше понять специфические аспекты деятельности организации и окружающую ее деловую среду. Для следующего шага – интерпретации результатов работы модели – моделей не существует. Модели управления эффективны только тогда, когда тот, кто их использует, глубоко понимает суть модели, область ее применения и ограничения и на основании этого делает соответствующие выводы.

Источник: www.franklin-grant.ru

Lesson 11
Strategic Management Tools

Read and translate the text and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

The Balanced Scorecard

In the industrial age, most of the assets of a firm were in property, plant and equipment, and the financial accounting system performed an adequate job of valuing these assets. In the information age, when much of the firm’s value is embedded in innovative processes, customer relationships, and human resources, the financial accounting system is not enough.

A new approach to strategic management was developed in the early 1990s by Drs. Robert Kaplan and David Norton. They named this system the ‘balanced scorecard’. The BSC approach provides a clear prescription as to what companies should measure in order to ‘balance’ the financial perspective.

The BSC is a measurement and management system that enables organizations to clarify their vision and strategy and translate them into action. It provides feedback around both the internal business processes and external outcomes in order to continuously improve strategic performance and results.

The BSC methodology builds on some key concepts of previous management ideas such as Total Quality Management (TQM), including customer-defined quality, continuous improvement, employee empowerment, and – primarily – measurement-based management and feedback.

The balanced scorecard views the organization from four perspectives:

 – The Learning and Growth Perspective – includes measures such as employee satisfaction, employee retention, skill sets, etc.;

 – The Business Process Perspective – includes measures such as cost, throughput and quality. These are for business processes such as procurement, production, and order fulfilment;

 – The Customer Perspective – includes measures such as customer satisfaction, customer retention, and market share in target segments;

 – The Financial Perspective – includes measures such as operating income, return on capital employed, and economic value added.

There is a logical connection between these four perspectives – learning and growth lead to better business processes, which in turn lead to increased value to the customer, which finally leads to improved financial performance. Each perspective of the balanced scorecard includes objectives, measures of those objectives, target values of those measures, and initiatives that are aimed at meeting the objectives.

Double-Loop Feedback

In traditional industrial activity, «quality control» and «zero defects» were the watchwords. In order to shield the customer from receiving poor quality products, aggressive efforts were focused on inspection and testing at the end of the production line. The problem with this approach is that the true causes of defects are never identified, and there are always inefficiencies due to the rejection of defects. Variation is created at every step in a production process, and the causes of variation need to be identified and fixed. If this can be done, then there is a way to reduce the defects and improve product quality indefinitely. To establish such a process all business processes should be part of a system with feedback loops. The feedback data should be examined by managers to determine the causes of variation, what are the processes with significant problems, and then they can focus on fixing that subset of processes.

The BSC incorporates feedback around internal business process outputs, as in TQM, but also adds a feedback loop around the outcomes of business strategies. This creates a «double-loop feedback» process in the balanced scorecard.

Why Do Executives Love Balanced Scorecard?

The BSC does its magic by focusing the organization on the issues which the leadership team decides are key to its success. It does this through the process of implementing the scorecard – so a human element is the key.

There are other benefits – stronger communication (through the cascading and measurement tracking processes), warning of opportunities ahead (from watching key performance indicators), less «information overload» (from focusing on the most important measures), and greater alignment (from agreement on key objectives).

A sheet of paper with numbers on it can be created by one person and implemented by sheer force of authority. However, the point of a BSC is to:

– Align all members of an organization around common goals and strategies

– Link initiatives to the strategy, making prioritization easier

– Provide feedback to people on key issues – areas where they can have an impact

– Be an essential decision-making tool for everyone in the organization

The best process is to first create a clear business model, and then to select measurements based on that model. This increases commitment, brings more agreement on the direction of the organization, builds accountability to company goals, and increases the speed of change. The first part of the process is creating a model for the scorecard. First, review and clarify strategies. The next step is agreeing on what capabilities are needed within the company to actually pursue the strategy. The final part is creating the actual model. This is where you set up a simple diagram that reflects how you think the business works.

Larger organizations usually adopt a top-down approach: a balanced scorecard is first installed at the top, where commitment is most vital to success. It is then cascaded throughout the organization, to align departments’ goals with the overall company goals. For single stores or small companies, this step might be unnecessary.

The final step is getting people to use the scorecard as a routine matter – making it part of the culture. This is where most management initiatives go wrong, leading to this sage advice: If you want something to be a useful tool, make it the only initiative you try this quarter, give it your full attention, and don’t take any shortcuts. Otherwise, an initiative becomes a fad and eventually appears in the Dilbert cartoons.

Once created, the scorecard should become a part of your business’ daily life; it should be embedded into a company’s operations as a standard decision-making tool. The BSC leverages common sense into a substantial competitive advantage.

Source: www.quickmba.com, www.balancedscorecard.org, Paul Arveson, 1998

Happy customers are good, but profitable customers are much better.

The Balanced Scorecard introduced customer metrics into performance management systems. Scorecards feature all manner of wonderful objectives relating to the customer value proposition and customer outcome metrics – for example, market share, account share, acquisition, satisfaction, and retention.

Yet amid all these measures of customer success, some companies lose sight of the ultimate objective: to make a profit from selling products and services. In their zeal to delight customers, these companies actually lose money with them. They become customer-obsessed rather than customer-focused. When the customer says «jump,» they ask «how high?» They offer additional product features and services, but fail to receive prices that cover the costs for these additional features and services.

How can companies avoid this situation? By adding a metric that summarizes customer profitability.

Consider the situation faced in the 1990s by one of the nation’s largest distributors of medical and surgical supplies. In five years, sales had more than tripled to nearly $3 billion, yet selling, general, and administrative (SG&A) expenses, thought by many to be a fixed cost, had increased even faster than sales; margins had declined by one percentage point and the company had just incurred its first loss in decades.

The experience of this company is hardly unique. Companies often capture additional business by offering more services. The list is wide-ranging: product or service customization; small order quantities; special packaging; expedited and JIT delivery; substantial pre-sales support, etc. While all of these services create value and loyalty among customers, none of them come for free. For a differentiated customer intimacy strategy to succeed, the value created by the differentiation has to exceed the cost of creating and delivering customized features and services.

Unfortunately, many companies cannot accurately decompose their aggregate marketing, technical, service, and administrative costs into the cost of serving individual customers. Either they treat all such costs as fixed-period costs and don’t drive them to the customer level, or they use inaccurate methods, such as allocating a flat percentage of sales revenue to each customer to cover indirect «below-the-line» expenses.

The remedy to this situation is to apply activity-based costing (ABC) to accurately assign an organization’s indirect expenses to customers. Many companies, however, have tried ABC at some time during the past twenty years and abandoned it because it did not capture the complexity of their operations, took too long to implement, and was too expensive to build and maintain. Fortunately, a new approach is now available that is far simpler and much more powerful than traditional ABC.

«Time-driven» ABC requires obtaining information on two parameters: the cost per hour of each group of resources performing work; and the unit times spent on these resources by specific activities for products, services, and customers. For example, if a customer support department has a cost of $70 per hour, and a particular transaction for a customer takes 24 minutes (0.4 hours), the cost of this transaction for this customer is $28. The end result is the ability to measure individual customer profitability accurately and in a system that is easy to implement and inexpensive to maintain and update.

The Payoff: BSC Customer Profitability Metrics

The ability to measure profitability at the individual customer level allows companies to consider new customer profitability metrics such as «percentage of unprofitable customers.» Such customer profitability measures provide a valuable signal that satisfaction, retention, and growth in customer relationships are desirable only if these relationships contribute to higher, not lower, profits.

BSC customer profitability metrics are also highly actionable. If a company finds that an important customer is unprofitable, it should first look internally to see how it can improve its internal processes to lower the cost-to-serve. After all, we can’t expect customers to pay for our inefficiencies. For example, if important customers are migrating to smaller order sizes, the company can focus on reducing setup and order handling costs. The company can ask the customer to use electronic channels, such as Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) and the Internet, that greatly lower the cost of processing large quantities of small customer orders.

Customized pricing policies should be at the heart of any strategy to manage customer profitability. The company can set a base price for a standard product or service, with standard packaging, delivery, and payment. The company also provides customers with a menu of options representing variations from the standard order, such as a customized product or service, special packaging, expedited delivery, or extended credit terms. Each menu item has a price that at least covers its cost, as measured by the ABC model, so the company no longer suffers losses from offering customized services. The menu prices also motivate customers to shift their purchasing and delivery patterns in ways that lower total costs to the benefit of the company and its customers.

Scorecard measures of the incidence of unprofitable customers and the magnitude of losses from unprofitable relationships focus the organization on managing customers for profits, not just for sales – thus making the customer focus align with financial objectives.

Source: Robert S. Kaplan, Balanced Scorecard Report,

August 25, 2005. http://hbswk.hbs.edu

Essential Vocabulary

1.property, plant and equipment (PPE) – основные средства

2. financial accounting system – система финансового учета

3. embed v – вставлять, укреплять; врезаться, укладывать; внедрять

4. balanced scorecard – сбалансированная система показателей

5. perspective n – перспектива, вид, вид на будущее; угол зрения

6. outcome n – результат, последствие, исход, выход

7. Total Quality Management (TQM) – система тотального управления качеством

8.throughput n – пропускная способность, производительность

9. operating income – операционная прибыль

10. return on capital employed (ROCE) – доходность примененного капитала

11. economic value added (EVA) – экономическая добавленная ценность

12. zero defects – бездефектный

13. shield n – щит (напр. налоговый), защита

shield v – защищать, прикрывать, спасать, отвратить

14. cascade n – каскад

cascade v – спускать вниз по принципу каскада

15. track n – след, остаток, признак; образ жизни; тропа, цепь, ряд; выслеживание, преследование, отслеживание

tracking n – слежение, отслеживание

track v – следить, выслеживать, оставлять следы, прокладывать путь

16. key performance indicators (KPI) – ключевые показатели деятельности

17. overload n – перегрузка

overload v – форсировать режим, перегружать

18. alignment n – расположение по одной линии, выравнивание, совпадение

align v – располагать по одной линии, равняться, выравнивать; наводить

19. accountability n – отчетность, подотчетность; расчет; ответственность

accountable a – отчетный, подотчетный

20. top down – сверху вниз

21. leverage n – леверидж, (финансовый) рычаг

leverage v – использовать как рычаг или двигатель, использовать как средство достижения цели

22. selling, general and administrative (SG&A) expenses – торговые, общие и административные расходы

23. fixed cost – постоянные затраты

24. incur losses – нести убытки

25. package n – упаковка, контейнер, ящик, пакет

packaging n – упаковка

package v – упаковывать

26.treatment n – обращение; трактовка; лечение; обработка

treat v – обращаться, трактовать, лечить, обрабатывать

27. below-the-line expenses – расходы, имеющие необычный характер

28. activity-based costing (ABC) – система учета по видам деятельности

29. handling costs – затраты на обработку

30. pattern n – образец, пример, шаблон; узор; структура, модель

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. Why were financial accounting systems capable of valuing a firm’s assets in the industrial age, and why are they inadequate in the information age? 2. What does the balanced scorecard enable companies to do? 3. What previous management ideas does the BSC incorporate? 4. What are the four perspectives to view the organization from that the BSC envisages? 5. What is the connection between these perspectives? 6. Why is feedback so essential? 7. Why is human factor a key in implementing the BSC? 8. What does the process of creating a business model for the BSC consist of? 9. Why should the BSC be made part of the organizational culture? 10. Why is it dangerous for companies to become customer-obsessed? 11. How can a company incur losses while increasing sales? 12. Why could the time-driven ABC become a useful approach? 13. What new customer profitability metrics can be introduced?

Exercise 2*. Replace words in italics with synonyms from the text.

1. Process charts invented by Frank Gilbreth concentrated on all work elements, including non-value adding elements. 2. The assembly line was the result of innovations in production and management systems introduced by Henry Ford. 3. Two general determinants of demand are buyer’s ability to purchase and their willingness to purchase. 4. At General Motors, Alfred P. Sloan developed and put into practice business and manufacturing strategies for managing very large enterprises and dealing with variety. 5. Positioning is a marketing method which goal is to create the perception of a product, brand, or company identity. 6. Harley-Davidson Motor Co led the US heavyweight motorcycle market until the late 1970s, but then it suffered losses because of the strengthening Japanese competition and deteriorating quality of its products. 7. A connection exists between marketing problems and marketing opportunities in the dynamic environment. 8. Levi Strauss introduced Levi’s 501 jeans, a new specially developed product aimed at gold prospectors in California during the Gold Rush.

Exercise 3. A Russian manufacturing company wants to introduce the balanced scorecard in order to enhance its efficiency and competitiveness. You are a strategic management consultant and you were hired by this company to help manage the process. Explain to the general director of the company what the benefits of the BSC are; what pitfalls should be avoided; and how the BSC should be applied to become a real performance driver.

Exercise 4*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

Six Sigma

Six Sigma is a quality management methodology that provides businesses with the…… to improve the……… of their business processes. This increase in……… and decrease in process variation lead to………. reduction and improvement in profits, employees’……… and quality of products. It is a quality…….. and improvement program that was……… by Mikel Harry and Motorola. It………. on the control of a process until the point of Six Sigma (standard………) from a centerline, or 3.4 defects per million items. It includes identifying factors which are………. for the quality as determined by the customer. It reduces process……… and improvement capabilities, increases………. and designs systems to support the Six Sigma goals.

The Six Sigma model is a highly disciplined approach that can help companies to focus on developing and………. near-perfect products and services. It is based on the statistical work of Joseph Juran, a Rumanian-born US pioneer of quality management. The word «Sigma» is a Greek sign used for a statistical term that measures how far a given process deviates from………. (standards deviation). If the sigma…….. is higher, you are closer to perfection. One Sigma is not very good, six sigma is defined as only 3.4 defects per million. The central idea behind Six Sigma is that if you can measure how many «defects» you have in a process, you can systematically……. out how you can……… them. Thus you can almost come to «…………».

The Japanese…….. of Six Sigma can still be seen by the system of «belts» which it uses. If you are new to Six Sigma and you go on a basic………, you get a green belt. Anyone who has the………. for leading a Six Sigma team is called a black belt. Finally, there is a special elite group called Master Black Belts who…….. the Black Belts.

Typically, a Six Sigma process has the following five stages:

1. Definition. The first step in any Six Sigma project is to clarify the problem and narrow its…….. in such a way that measurable……… can be achieved within a few months. Then a team is assembled to examine the process in detail, suggest improvements, and……… those recommendations. In the manufacturing world, project managers and their……. typically begin by defining what constitutes a defect, and then establish a set of……… designed to reduce the……….. of such defects.

2. Measurement. In the second step of a Six Sigma project, the team gathers………. and prepares it for a high-level analysis.

3. Analysis. Once a process has been………. and documented, and the quality of the hard supporting data has been………, the Six Sigma team can begin the analysis. The team members usually start by………. the ways in which people fail to act as needed, or by identifying the way in which people fail to ensure……… control at each stage.

4. Improvement. Recommend, decide and implement improvements.

5. Control. In the final stage of a Six Sigma project, the team creates……. These are enabling the company to…….. and extend the improvements.

Source: www.valuebasedmanagement.com

Terms:

effective, occurrence, mapped, implement, number, verified, origin, figure, sponsors, goals, controls, sustain, data, objectives, zero-defects, supervise, tools, capability, performance, defect, scope, morale, measure, pioneered, focuses, deviations, critical, variation, stability, delivering, perfection, eliminate, training, responsibility, identifying

Exercise 5. Translate into English.

Сбалансированная система показателей

Почему некоторые компании, внедрившие сбалансированную систему показателей (ССП), сталкиваются с ситуацией, когда система перестает работать? Казалось бы, стратегия формализована, показатели разработаны, стратегическая карта создана, однако руководству по-прежнему не удается получать информацию по всем аспектам деятельности организации, а сотрудники все так же недоумевают, для чего была внедрена система и какую практическую пользу она может приносить в их ежедневной деятельности.

Это происходит в первую очередь потому, что ССП существует сама по себе и никак не связана с другими элементами управления организации: системами бюджетирования и управленческого учета, инструментами стратегического развития и оперативного управления. Другими словами, сбалансированная система показателей требует от компании единого развития, ориентации на стратегию всех подразделений, вплоть до каждого сотрудника, что невозможно без адаптации новой системы к уже существующим в организации.

Чтобы компания развивалась в соответствии со своей стратегией, должны быть выполнены следующие условия:

– каждая из подсистем управления вносит свой вклад в реализацию стратегии;

– каждая из систем управления служит источником информации для ССП;

– ССП, в свою очередь, способствует успешному функционированию других подсистем.

ССП и стратегическое управление

Прежде всего необходимо связать сбалансированную систему показателей с системой стратегического управления. В противном случае ССП будет всего лишь набором разрозненных показателей, никак не влияющих на стратегическое развитие организации.

Важным инструментом стратегического управления является стратегическое планирование. Именно на основе информации, полученной в результате планирования, и происходят разработка стратегической карты и формирование показателей.

Однако стратегическое планирование как таковое во многих российских организациях отсутствует. Согласно некоторым оценкам, стратегический план как документ есть только у 10% компаний, и только в 5% компаний этот план читал кто-либо, кроме разработчика и непосредственного заказчика. Многие стратегические документы ограничиваются туманными формулировками, такими, как «стабильное положение на рынке», «повышение рентабельности», «снижение издержек», и абсолютно не работают на претворение стратегических целей в жизнь.

Поэтому взаимодействие ССП с системой стратегического управления происходит, как правило, еще на этапе ее создания. Большинство наших проектов по внедрению сбалансированной системы показателей начинается со сбора информации для формализации стратегии. По результатам интервьюирования топ-менеджеров и анализа предложений ключевых сотрудников готовится отчет, на основе которого уже разрабатывается стратегическая карта компании.

В то же время структура ССП может стать хорошей основой для разработки полноценной стратегии. Четыре ключевые перспективы (финансы, клиенты, процессы, обучение и развитие) позволяют распределить цели таким образом, чтобы ни одна из сторон деятельности компании не была забыта и ее развитие происходило сбалансированно.

В дальнейшем информация, которая будет собираться по показателям, станет хорошей основой для пересмотра и корректировки стратегии, а сбалансированная система показателей, в свою очередь, стимулирует компанию более внимательно относиться к стратегическому планированию.

Какие бы системы управления ни использовались в вашей компании, следует всегда помнить, что для их успешного функционирования требуется единый механизм работы, слаженность и взаимодействие. Только в этом случае компания будет двигаться по пути своей стратегии, а управление будет продуманным, сбалансированным и успешным.

Источник: Андрей Гершун, управляющий партнер,

Мария Фурсеева, копирайтер, Маг Консалтинг (отрывок), www.intalev.ru

Lesson 12
Management Innovations

Read and translate the text and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

Delivering Superior Shareholder Value

Business Rationale of Value-Based Management

The creation and delivery of shareholder value has become a business mantra espoused by almost every-self respecting CEO. In their annual reports and published results few of them fail to mention their focus on «delivering shareholder value». However, many organizations fail to translate the aim into reality. Some manage to develop a strategy for creating value. Few actually deliver.

In the increasingly e-connected economy, investors move their money quickly around the world in the quest for the optimum shareholder returns. As a result, today’s business leaders must be able to understand how to create, measure, manage and deliver shareholder value. Messages about value in annual reports are not enough on their own.

Finance experts argue that companies need to earn a minimum level of return on all the capital they employ within their organizations. This minimum level of return required by the providers of capital is known as the «cost of capital». This means that after paying the providers of debt capital, there must still be enough left in order to compensate the equity shareholders for the risks they take.

The returns to shareholders can take the form of dividends and growth in the value of their shares. In the long run, unless companies are able to deliver returns that exceed the cost of capital, the shareholders will grow dissatisfied, disposing of their investments and forcing down the share price.

Falling share prices erode the value of equity investments and lead to disgruntled investors. Disgruntled investors, if upset for long enough, may seek to replace existing managers with those who can produce results of the size needed to maintain and increase share price. There is strong evidence of increasing shareholder activities of this sort. Understandably, companies, and their executive management teams, seek tools to help them measure and deliver value to shareholders.

Value-based management is such a management technique. It is designed to help companies create superior shareholder value through aligning the focus of management decision-making with the interests of shareholders. Major companies like Barclays Bank and Sainsbury have started to focus on VBM to help them manage and, indeed, transform their business. Thus, Lloyds Bank first came to adopt a VBM approach in the mid-1980s. As a result, its shares showed remarkably impressive performance in relation to its peers, such as Barclays Bank, and the Datastream Banks Index over a 15-year period. Given the relative «underperformance» of Barclays over time, it is no wonder that Barclays announced the introduction of VBM in 2000 with the express aim of helping it to become a top-tier performer.

Shareholder value became a business mantra in the 1990s and it is likely to become more widely espoused in the new millennium. Why? The focus on value creation gives purpose for energizing high performance in every aspect of the business.

The old saying «what gets measured gets done» is certainly true in the world of shareholder value. When businesses manage for shareholder value they tend to adopt a common language of value-based metrics. These in turn can be linked to other financial and non-financial measures and targets which help to drive success and, importantly, deliver superior returns for investors when embedded successfully in the business.

Measuring Value Creation

The metrics that measure «value» or «value creation» were originally based on DCF techniques and these are most commonly applied to individual project evaluations. The first step in measuring the value created from any investment project is to calculate the net present value (NPV). The NPV represents:

– The sum of the «present values» of future cash flows resulting from an investment that is discounted at a given rate of interest, the «cost of capital». This gives a sum for the future receipts from the investment expressed in today’s monetary values.

– Less the cost of the investment. This determines whether, again in today’s money, there is a surplus or deficit from the investment.

The NPV that results simply represents the «present value» of the future cash flows less the original cost of the investment. If the NPV is positive then the return from the investment has exceeded the cost of capital and the value of the company should increase by the amount of value created. If, however, the NPV is negative the company’s value should theoretically decrease.

In reality there are many complications to this simple scenario. Companies represent a composite portfolio of numerous investment projects that have been made at different points of time and they do not convey all the information investors need to adjust values accordingly. Complex investment project scenarios can be extremely difficult to analyze and there are many arguments about the correct discount rates to use.

In spite of the difficulties, and although investors cannot always delve into the results of individual projects, it is possible for them to study the accounts of companies and to infer from them whether value has been added or destroyed. Investors can also extend this approach further by analyzing the forecast for companies to determine whether they are likely to add value in the future. This can help with their investment decisions and will, in turn, affect share prices.

Strictly speaking, companies wishing to deliver and maximize shareholder value creation need to focus on two things:

– Maximizing the stream of future cash flows;

– Minimizing the interest charged against that stream by reducing the «cost of capital».

Some would argue that influencing the cost of capital charge significantly is almost impossible and that the sole focus therefore should be on cash flow maximization. At its most basic level, then, a successful VBM approach means achieving a positive stream of future cash flows to give shareholders a return on capital in excess of its cost.

There are many ways of measuring this value but two are the most well known. The first is total shareholder returnand the second is economic profit.

From an investor’s perspective, when measuring the value that has been created the most important measure to use is total shareholder return. It is the sum of two components, which represent the benefits to the shareholder from owning the share:

– The percentage share price appreciation over the period being measured;

– The dividend yield during the period, expressed as a percentage of the share price.

Internally, companies that adopted VBM often use the second most popular measure of value. This is known as «economic profit». It measures the return earned by the company in a period after deducting a charge for the cost of capital employed within the business. Economic profit is often considered as the internal VBM measure that acts as a proxy for the shareholder value measured externally by the total shareholder return.

A Case Study in Delivering Shareholder Value – BP

BP is one of the few companies that regularly receives awards for its delivery of shareholder value. Peter Hall, the Director of Investor Relations at BP, highlights a number of key factors that keep BP near the top of the shareholder value league tables:

– The concept of shareholder value is very important within the business culture. The group actively attempts to manage and integrate the shareholder value perceived externally within the stock markets with the value created internally by the managers of the business. There is a very close link between the investor relations team and the Group CEO and CFO, who continually take a strong interest in the company’s share price. The group’s investor relations department is eight strong and has dedicated experts both in London and New York.

– The company has adopted total shareholder return as its main way of measuring shareholder value. Absolute growth in TSR is not sufficient. BP must also improve relatively against its peer group. BP has also used TSR in a sophisticated way by:

Calculating total shareholder return over a three-year period to smooth out short-term fluctuations in the stock markets;

Using a comparative peer group of companies (against whom they measure their relative TSR performance). This group includes the major six key players within the oil industry – ExxonMobil, Shell, ChevronTexaco, TOTAL, ENI and Repsol YPF.

– TSR has been adopted internally as a way of driving business performance. This has been achieved through the use of two additional performance measures, earnings growth coupled with return on capital employed. By setting business unit targets based on both of these measures, managers need to deliver growth in earnings and an increasingly effective utilization of the assets within their business. Success with these parameters should translate into improved TSR.

– The organizational structure is deliberately flat and is geared towards effective management and delivery against these key targets. There are approximately 150 business units in BP, each on average with around $0.5 billion in capital employed. This is small enough to enable the CEO, if he wants to communicate an important message, to bring together all the managers of the business units into one room if necessary.

– The business units within BP also compete against each other for capital allocation. Peer group results are regularly reported through BP’s financial systems. This internal competition also drives selective investment into business projects that generate the best shareholder value in the medium to long term.

– The remuneration of the management team is heavily dependent on their relative performance against demanding three-year TSR, earnings growth and return on capital employed targets. It is not enough for managers to deliver TSR, earnings growth or ROCE in isolation. To earn the maximum award they have to deliver all three and they have to outperform their peer group. Performance below the peer group median results in no award. The remuneration contract of BP’s executive directors ties as much as 70% of their earnings to these factors so they really do bear similar risks to the shareholders for whom they act. The contracts of all other senior managers are similarly structured to reflect both their own targets and the company’s results relative to its peers.

BP also recognizes the need to manage effectively its communications with journalists and the investment community. Peter’s team actively monitors the information that is currently available about BP within the investment community. Often analysts send drafts of their reports and models to the company for comment. The team reviews these to correct any factual errors but they do not comment on the broker’s recommendations. BP is also in regular contact with large institutional investors, such as Fidelity and Merrill Lynch Asset Management, who by virtue of the amount of their funds under management can make a significant difference to BP’s share price performance relative to its competitors within the industry.

This BP case study highlights an important truth about managing for shareholder value. It is not sufficient for companies merely to convey to investors messages about shareholder value. They must also back up those messages with a real implementation of practical measures and actions designed to create and deliver that value consistently.

Source: G. Ashworth, P. James, Delivering Superior Shareholders Value, 2001

Essential Vocabulary

1. rationale n – логическое обоснование, основная причина, подоплека

2. cost of capital – стоимость капитала

3. debt capital – заемный капитал

4. value-based management – менеджмент, основанный на ценности

5. peer n – ровня, равный, сопоставимый; пэр

6. underperformance n – результаты деятельности ниже возможных или ниже рынка

underperformer n – юридическое или физическое лицо, показывающее результаты деятельности ниже возможных или ниже рынка

underperform v – показывать результаты деятельности ниже возможных или ниже рынка

7. tier n – эшелон, ряд, слой, уровень, ярус

8. net present value (NPV) – чистая приведенная ценность

9. receipt(s) n – расписка, денежные поступления, платежи

10. surplus n – избыток, излишек, активное сальдо, профицит

11. discount rate – ставка дисконтирования

12. total shareholder return (TSR) – суммарная доходность акционеров

13. economic profit – экономическая прибыль

14. appreciation n – высокая оценка, признательность, оценка по достоинству; повышение цены, удорожание, повышение курса (валюты или акций)

appreciate v – ценить, оценивать по достоинству, хорошо разбираться; повышаться (о курсе валют или акций)

15. dividend yield – дивидендная доходность

16. deduction n – вычет, вычитание

deduct v – вычитать

deductible a – подлежащий вычету (напр. для целей налогообложения)

17. investor relations – отношения с инвесторами, работа с инвесторами

18. fluctuation n – колебание

fluctuate v – колебаться

19. peer group of companies – группа равных (сопоставимых) компаний

20. flat a – плоский (напр. налог, структура компании); стандартный; разовый

21. outperformance n – результаты деятельности выше ожидаемых или выше рынка

outperformer n – юридическое или физическое лицо, показывающее результаты деятельности выше ожидаемых или выше рынка

outperform v – показывать результаты деятельности выше ожидаемых или выше рынка

22. investment community – инвестиционное сообщество

23. draft n – проект, план, набросок, эскиз; чек, тратта, получение денег по чеку; отбор, призыв, вербовка

draft v – делать эскиз, составлять план, законопроект; выделять, отбирать

24. institutional investors – институциональные инвесторы

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. Why should today’s business leaders be able to understand how to create, measure, manage and deliver shareholder value? 2. What does the term «cost of capital» mean? 3. What forms do returns to shareholders usually take? 4. Why is it undesirable for managers to irritate shareholders? 5. What is the essence of value-based management? 6. Why is shareholder value becoming increasingly popular? 7. What does NPV mean? 7. What should companies wishing to deliver and maximize shareholder value focus on? 8. What are the best-known metrics of created shareholder value? 9. What is BP famous for and how does it consistently manage to be near the top of the shareholder value league tables?

Exercise 2*. Which of the following statements are not correct and why?

1. Most organizations successfully translate the aim of delivering shareholder value into reality. 2. Today’s business leaders must be able to understand how to create, measure, manage and deliver shareholder value. 3. The returns to shareholders can take the form of dividends and growth in the value of their shares. 4. Lloyds Bank adopted a value-based management approach in the mid-1980s and, as a result, its shares showed significant underperformance in relation to its peers. 5. Shareholder value became a business mantra in the 1990s, but its popularity is likely to fade in the new millennium. 6. What gets measured gets done. 7. NPV represents the «present value» of the future cash flows. 8. It is possible for investors to study the accounts of companies and to infer from them whether value has been added or destroyed. 9. BP is rarely able to deliver high shareholder value. 10. Absolute growth in TSR is deemed by BP to be sufficient. 11. The organizational structure of BP is deliberately flat. 12. The business units within BP compete against each other for capital allocation. 13. The system of remuneration in BP is such that it is enough for managers to deliver TSR, earnings growth or ROCE in isolation.

Exercise 3*. Find terms in the text that match definitions given below and make sentences of your own with each term.

1. an oral, written, or signaled communication sent from a person to another; an inspired communication to be delivered to the world

2. minimum level of return required by the providers of capital

3. the proportion of profit or gain made by a corporation, which is divided among the stockholders

4. the act or manner of exhibiting an art, skill or capacity; the degree to which anything functions as intended

5. one of the same rank or qualities; an equal

6. the «present value» of the future cash flows less the original cost of the investment

7. an increase in value or worth

8. a measure of return (or profit) earned by the company in a period after deducting a charge for the cost of capital employed within the business

9. a market where securities are traded

Exercise 4*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

Value-based Management inThyssenKrupp Group

The ThyssenKrupp Group is managed and controlled on the basis of an Economic Value Added («EVA») management system. The key goal of this system is to maintain continuous increases in……… by focusing on business……… which – with respect to their performance – are among the best………. To achieve this objective, an integrated controlling concept is………. It allows for……… controlling and coordination of activities of all segments, supports………. responsibility and promotes overall transparency.

By taking timely appropriate actions, the integrated controlling concept realizes the increase of corporate value by bridging operating and strategic……….. between the actual and……… situation. The prerequisite for this concept is the existence of high quality operational and strategic reporting systems for the accounting of actual and………. results as well as internal and external…………

In the ThyssenKrupp controlling concept, strategic and operational elements are………. to timely reporting which is accompanied by regular………. communication. The concrete elements of this strategy are: economic value added performance measures and active portfolio management.

The central performance measures are return on capital employed (ROCE) and Economic Value Added (EVA). These two ratios reflect the……… of capital employed in the form of a relative quantity (ROCE) and an absolute value (EVA).

ROCE is calculated as follows:

ROCE = incomebeforeincometaxes, minority interest and interest/ capital employed

EVA is computed as the difference between ROCE and the…………., multiplied by the capital employed. Additional value is created only if the ROCE exceeds the weighted cost of capital. Accordingly, cost of capital reflects the minimum acceptable……….. In addition, individual target……….. is agreed for individual activities, which are based either on the best competitor or on an inter-industry………. This management and controlling system is linked to the………. system in such a way that the amount of the performance-related………. is determined by the achieved EVA.

ThyssenKrupp’s active portfolio management directly follows the result of the analysis of the……….. measures. It involves structural measures which are principally of a strategic nature, including the selection and………. of………… with which the targeted increases in EVA or value are to be realized, as well as the timely and profitable………… from activities which do not achieve adequate increases in EVA. These measures further aim at creating new operating activities through a favorable………. in evolving markets. For the Group as a whole these measures are of particular importance when it comes to establishing a balance between………. and…….. This is a basic prerequisite for……… continuity and sustained growth in………. activities.

Source: ThyssenKrupp Group Annual Report 2004/2005, p. 91—93, www.thyssenkrupp.com

Terms:

dividend, bonus, budgeted, entry, corporate value, cash providers, linked, profitability, business units, rate of return, segments, performance, expansion, withdrawal, core, worldwide, applied, goal-driven, decentralized, gaps, earning power, target, reporting, proactive, cost of capital, benchmark, remuneration, value generators

Exercise 5. Translate into English.

Value-Based Management и показатели стоимости

Value-Based Management – концепция управления, направленная на качественное улучшение стратегических и оперативных решений на всех уровнях организации за счет концентрации усилий всех лиц, принимающих решения, на ключевых факторах стоимости. Из всего множества альтернативных целевых функций в рамках концепции VBM выбирается максимизация стоимости компании. Стоимость же компании определяется ее дисконтированными будущими денежными потоками, и новая стоимость создается лишь тогда, когда компании получают такую отдачу от инвестированного капитала, которая превышает затраты на привлечение капитала.

Но, как известно, для того чтобы управлять чем-либо, необходимо уметь это измерять. В приложении к VBM это означает, что необходим инструмент, позволяющий оценить отдачу от инвестированного в компанию капитала. Таким образом, мы можем выделить основные факторы, влияющие на стоимость компании, которые обязательно должны учитываться в показателе, отражающем создание стоимости – затраты на собственный и заемный капитал и доходы, генерируемые существующими активами (при этом доход может выражаться в различных формах: прибыль, денежный поток и т. д.). В 80—90-х годах появился целый ряд показателей (на основе некоторых из них в дальнейшем возникли даже системы управления: например, EVA и EVA-based management), отражающие процесс создания стоимости. Наиболее известные из них – EVA, MVA, SVA, CVA и CFROI.

Market Value Added (MVA)

По-видимому, MVA – самый очевидный критерий создания стоимости, рассматривающий в качестве последней рыночную капитализацию и рыночную стоимость долгов компании.

MVA рассчитывается как разница между рыночной ценой капитала и инвестированным в компанию капиталом:

MVA = рыночная стоимость долга + рыночная капитализация – совокупный капитал

С точки зрения теории корпоративных финансов MVA отражает дисконтированную стоимость всех настоящих и будущих инвестиций.

Показатель, лежащий в основе системы VBM, должен не только отражать стоимость компании, но и показывать эффективность принятия решений на всех уровнях иерархии, а также служить инструментом мотивации. Рассматриваемый показатель (MVA) не отвечает данным требованиям, т. к. на рыночную капитализацию оказывают влияние многие факторы, часть из которых неподконтрольна менеджменту компании.

Более того, если результаты работы компании будут оцениваться по данному показателю и мотивационные схемы будут также привязаны к нему, то это может привести к тому, что руководство будет принимать решения, оказывающие краткосрочное влияние на курсовую стоимость акций, но разрушающие стоимость в долгосрочной перспективе (например, программы сокращения затрат за счет масштабного сокращения бюджета научно-исследовательских разработок). Но, как известно, одной из основных целей системы VBM является координация и мотивация принятия решений, ведущих к созданию долгосрочных конкурентных преимуществ, так как стоимость компании определяется суммой будущих денежных потоков. В ответ на данные недостатки возник целый ряд альтернативных показателей стоимости.

Economic Value Added (EVA)

Наверно, из всех существующих показателей, предназначенных для оценки процесса создания стоимости компании, EVA является самым известным и распространенным. Причина этого в том, что данный показатель сочетает простоту расчета и возможность определения стоимости компании, а также позволяет оценивать эффективность как предприятия в целом, так и отдельных подразделений. EVA является индикатором качества управленческих решений: постоянная положительная величина этого показателя свидетельствует об увеличении стоимости компании, тогда как отрицательная – о ее снижении.

Источник: В.Д. Степанов (отрывок из статьи), www.man.con.ua

Lesson 13
Conflict between Managers and Shareholders

Read and translate the text and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

Agency Problem

Role of Shareholders and Role of Managers

Although ordinary shareholders are the owners of the company to whom the board of directors are accountable, the actual powers of shareholders tend to be restricted. They have no right to inspect the books of account, and their forecasts of future prospects are gleaned from the annual report and accounts, stockbrokers, journals and newspapers.

The day-to-day running of a company is the responsibility of the directors and other managers to whom they delegate, not the shareholders. For these reasons, there is potential for conflicts of interest between managers and shareholders.

Shareholders used to take a passive role in the affairs of the company. It was once common to play down their influence. This has changed partly because of a change in the type of shareholder, partly due to takeover activity and partly because of social pressures. Shareholding has changed from private investors to institutional investors, who are able to employ experts to advise on the investment strategy. The company must accordingly be run in a way that guarantees the satisfaction of an increasingly sophisticated shareholder, who will both be competent and keen to assess for himself the truth behind any optimistic statements.

The power that the institutional shareholders have over a company rests on the effect that their investment decisions can have on the share price of a company, on the fact that at times of takeover bid the decision of a few shareholders can have a major influence on whether the bid succeeds or fail, and on the fact that the institutions have large amount of funds that can be made available to a company. The institutions need the companies, as they need good investment opportunities in a healthy economic climate, in order to be able to meet their future pension and assurance obligations.

Agency Theory and Agency Problems

The relationship between management and shareholders is referred to as an agency relationship, in which managers act as agents for the shareholders, using delegated powers to run the affairs of the company in the best interest of the shareholders.

Agency problem is a potential conflict of interest between the agent (manager) and the outside shareholders and the creditors. For example, if managers hold none or very little shares of the company they work for, what is to stop them from working inefficiently, not bothering to look for profitable new investments, or giving themselves high salary or perks?

Agency theory proposes that, although the individual members of the business team act in their own self interest, the well being of each individual depends on the well being of other team members and on the performance of the team in competition with other teams.

One power that shareholders possess is the right to remove the directors from office but shareholders have to take initiative to do this, and in many companies the shareholders lack energy and organization to take such a step. Even so, directors will want the company’s report and accounts, and the proposed final dividend, to meet with the shareholders’ approval at annual general meeting.

Another source of conflict between managers and shareholders is that they have different attitude towards risk. A shareholder can spread his risk by investing his money in a number of companies. A manager’s financial security usually depends on what happens to the one company that employs him. The manager could therefore be more risk averse than the shareholder and not eager to invest in risky projects.

Another situation in which conflicts can arise is when a company is subject to takeover bid. The shareholders of the acquired firm very often receive above normal gains for the share price while managers lose their jobs; if lucky they may be picked by the new shareholders. Therefore, it is not always in the shareholders’ interest that the sought-after companies put up such a defense to drive the bidder away.

Goal Congruence

Goal congruence is the accord between the objectives of agents acting within an organization and the objectives of the organization as a whole. Managers can be encouraged to act in shareholders’ best interests through incentives which reward them for good performance but punish them for poor performance:

Profit related pay. If managers are rewarded according to the level of profit they will strive to achieve high profit levels. Shareholders’ wealth is going to increase, so too is the value of the firm. Sometimes such act might just encourage creative accounting whereby management will distort the reported performance of the company in the service of the managers’ own ends.

Rewarding managers with shares. This might be done when a company goes public and managers are invited to subscribe for shares in the company at an attractive offer price. Managers will have a stake in the business and will venture only into those projects that enhance the share value of the business.

Direct intervention by shareholders. The pattern of shareholding has changed from passive private investors to aggressive intuitional investors. These shareholders have direct influence over the performance of an enterprise. They actively check the performance of the company and are quick to lobby other small shareholders when they suspect poor service or any malpractice by the directors.

Threat of firing. Shareholders can take a direct approach by threatening the managers with dismissal if they put their personal interest above maximization of the firm’s value. Institutional investors enhanced the shareholders powers to dismiss directors as they are able to lobby other shareholders in decision making.

Threats of takeover. Managers would do everything possible to frustrate takeovers as they are aware that they can lose their jobs. To promote goal congruence the shareholders may threaten to accept takeover bid if managers do not meet their set targets.

Source: http//cbdd.wsu.edu

Conflict Between Managers and Shareholders

In the catechism of capitalism, shares represent the part-ownership of an economic enterprise. The value of shares is determined by the replacement value of the assets of the firm, including intangibles such as goodwill. The price of the share is determined by transactions among arm’s length buyers and sellers in an efficient and liquid market. The price reflects expectations regarding the future value of the firm and the stock’s future stream of income – i.e., dividends.

Alas, none of these oft-recited dogmas bears any resemblance to reality. Shares rarely represent ownership. The free float is frequently marginal. Shareholders meet once a year to vent their displeasure and disperse. BoDs are appointed by management – as are auditors. Shareholders are not represented in any decision making process.

The truth is that shares represent the expectation to find future buyers at a higher price and thus incur capital gains. In the stock exchange, this expectation is proportional to liquidity and volatility. Thus, the price of any given stock reflects the consensus as to how easy it would be to offload one’s holdings and at what price.

Another myth has to do with the role of managers. They are supposed to generate higher returns to shareholders by increasing the value of the firm’s assets and, therefore, of the firm. If they fail to do so, goes the moral tale, they are booted out mercilessly. This is one manifestation of the «Principal-Agent Problem». It is defined thus by the Oxford Dictionary of Economics: «The problem of how a person A can motivate person B to act for A’s benefit rather than following (his) self-interest.»

The obvious answer is that A can never motivate B not to follow B’s self-interest – never mind what the incentives are. That economists pretend otherwise just serves to demonstrate how divorced economics is from human psychology and from reality.

Managers will always rob blind the companies they run. They will always manipulate boards to collude in their shenanigans. They will always bribe auditors to bend the rules. In other words, they will always act in their self-interest. In their defense, they can say that the damage from such actions to each shareholder is minuscule while the benefits to the manager are enormous.

But why do shareholders cooperate with such corporate robbery? Shareholders and managers are allied against the firm – not pitted against each other. The paramount interest of both shareholders and managers is to increase the value of the stock – regardless of the true value of the firm. Both are concerned with the performance of the share – rather than the performance of the firm. Both are preoccupied with boosting the share’s price – rather than the company’s business.

Hence the inflationary executive pay packets. Shareholders hire stock manipulators – euphemistically known as «managers» – to generate expectations regarding the future prices of their shares. The corporate executives are allowed by shareholders to loot the company providing they generate consistent capital gains to their masters by provoking persistent interest and excitement around the business.

The Principal-Agent Problem arises in other social interactions and is equally misunderstood there. Consider taxpayers and their government. Contrary to conservative lore, the former want the government to tax them providing they share in the spoils. They tolerate corruption in high places, cronyism, nepotism, inaptitude and worse – on condition that the government and the legislature redistribute the wealth they confiscate. Such redistribution often comes in the form of pork barrel projects and benefits to the middle class.

This is why the tax burden and the government’s share of GDP have been soaring inexorably with the consent of the citizens. People adore government spending precisely because it is inefficient and distorts the proper allocation of economic resources. Most people are rent-seekers. Witness the mass demonstrations that erupt whenever governments try to slash expenditures, privatize, and eliminate their gaping deficits. This is one reason the IMF with its austerity measures is universally unpopular.

Employers and employees, producers and consumers – these are all instances of the Principal-Agent Problem. Economists would do well to discard their models and go back to basics. They could start by asking:

– Why do shareholders acquiesce with executive malfeasance as long as share prices are rising?

– Why do citizens protest against a smaller government – even if it means lower taxes?

– Could it mean that the interests of shareholders and managers are identical? Does it imply that people prefer tax-and-spend governments and pork barrel politics to the Thatcherite alternative?

Nothing happens by accident or by coercion. Shareholders aided and abetted the current crop of corporate executives enthusiastically. They knew well what was happening. They may not have been aware of the exact nature and extent of the rot – but they witnessed approvingly the public relations antics, insider trading, share price manipulation, opaque transactions, and outlandish pay packages. Investors remained mum throughout the corruption of corporate America. It is time for the hangover.

Source: Sam Vaknin, published: 2005-01-18, www.bebpronews.com

Essential Vocabulary

1. ordinary shareholder – акционер, владеющий обыкновенными акциями компании

2. books of account – бухгалтерские книги компании

3. day-to-day а – повседневный

4. running n – зд. работа компании, управление компанией

run v – управлять компанией

5. takeover n – поглощение

take over v – поглощать

6. assurance obligations – страховые обязательства

7. agency n – агентство; агент; юридические отношения между принципалом и агентом; агентские услуги; (мн.) ценные бумаги государственных ведомств

agent n – агент, посредник

8. outsider n – аутсайдер

outside a – внешний

9. perk n – привилегия, льгота, скидка

10. annual general meeting (AGM) – ежегодное общее собрание акционеров

11. risk averse a – не расположенный к риску

12.shareholders’ wealth – богатство акционеров

13. public company – публичная компания

14. subscription n – подписка

subscribe v – подписаться

15. offer price – цена продавца

16. stake n – участие в капитале; ставка, заклад

17. venture n – коммерческое предприятие; рискованное начинание

venture v – рисковать, отважиться, решиться

venture a – венчурный, рискованный

18. malpractice n – противозаконное действие, злоупотребление доверием; преступная небрежность

19. replacement value – цена замещения

20. arm’s length – «на расстоянии вытянутой руки» (напр. сделка, проводимая так, что между сторонами нет юридических или финансовых связей во избежание конфликта интересов)

21. free float – число акций в свободном обращении на рынке

22. capital gains – приращение капитала

23. stock exchange – фондовая биржа

24. volatility n – волатильность, переменчивость, неустойчивость

volatile a – волатильный, переменчивый, неустойчивый

25. principal n – номинальная или основная сумма кредита, займа или депозита; принципал, партнер фирмы

26. collusion n – тайный сговор

collude v – вступать в сговор

27. bribe n – взятка

bribe v – давать взятку

28. pay packet – заработок, фонд заработной платы

29. tax burden – налоговое бремя

30. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) – валовой внутренний продукт (ВВП)

31. International Monetary Fund (IMF) – Международный валютный фонд (МВФ)

32. malfeasance n – неправомерное действие, должностное преступление

33. coercion n – принуждение, сдерживание силой, физическое давление

coerce v – удерживать, заставлять, принуждать; добиться путем принуждения

coercive a – принудительный

34. insider trading – внутренняя (инсайдерская) торговля

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. Who is responsible for the day-to-day running of the company? 2. Why did shareholders play a passive role in the affairs of their company in the past? 3. How has shareholding changed recently? 4. How can institutional shareholders influence the affairs of a company? 5. What is the essence of the agency problem? 6. What does the agency theory state? 7. Why might managers do their best to improve the financial performance of their company? 8. Why is the difference in risk attitudes of managers and shareholders? 9. What are the potential sources of conflicts between managers and shareholders? 10. What types of incentives might encourage managers to act in shareholders’ best interests? 11. Why is it believed that managers will always steal from the company they run? 12. Why do shareholders cooperate with corporate robbery? 13. What is the paramount interest of both shareholders and managers? 14. In what way does the Principal-Agent Problem arise in other social interactions? 15. Do you agree with the macroeconomic views of Sam Vaknin, the author of the second text?

Exercise 2*. Find terms in the text that match definitions given below and make sentences of your using these terms.

1. to assume control or ownership; to seize by force or craft

2. one who is not connected with or admitted to a particular association, set or group

3. an undertaking of chance, danger, or hazard, esp. a commercial speculation

4. an association of brokers or dealers in stocks and bonds who trade securities among themselves

5. fickle, apt to change, lively

6. secret agreement for a deceitful or fraudulent purposes, esp. between persons pretending to be adversaries or competitors

7. to induce to a certain course of action, esp. to a wrong course, by the gift or offer of something valued

8. changed from the natural character or original simplicity

Exercise 3. Analyze the potential for conflict between managers and shareholders in Russian companies. Describe a corporate conflict that has happened in Russia.

Exercise 4*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

The Boss on the Sidelines

How Auditors, Directors and Lawyers Are Asserting their Power

If anybody needed proof that the…… in Corporate America has……… Maurice R. Greenberg…….. it on March 13. While the imperious chairman and CEO of American International Group Inc. was aboard his yacht on the Florida coast, his company’s……. directors faced an urgent crisis: a growing……. that seemed to lead straight to the CEO. As directors debated whether to cut Greenberg loose, the 79-year-old titan lashed out at them by telephone: «This board is being….. by a bunch of lawyers who can’t spell the word ‘insurance’! If you get rid of me, you will……. this company!» It was the kind of intimidation that had helped Greenberg….. unprecedented power in his four decades at the…….. of the insurer. But this time, the bullying didn’t work. Within a day, Greenberg, once the most powerful man in the industry, was out as CEO.

Greenberg failed to…… the first rule of this new era: that directors, auditors, and….. are more powerful than ever. That shift has fundamentally altered…….. between CEOs and the advisers. At their best, these supposed guardians of……, chosen for their ability to complement the CEO and provide specific areas of……., were trusted counselors. At their worst, they were little more than sycophants. Either way, these advisers – who were always supposed to work for the……… not the CEO – usually……… their power as watchdogs only in moments of genuine crisis. But now the chumminess has given way to a more adversarial…… This new……. has helped to get rid of Boeing CEO Harry C. Stonecipher, Walt Disney CEO Michael D. Eisner, and Hewlett-Packard CEO Carleton S. Fiorina, among others.

The watchdogs are finally facing genuine…….. for their……. The Big Five in the accounting world became the Big Four after prosecutors……. put Arthur Andersen out of business for its role in the Enron scandal. Meanwhile, directors at the……. Houston energy giant and WorldCom are paying off fraud……. from their own pockets.

The result of all this is a climate of fear. Directors….. and lawyers are worried, first and foremost, about protecting their hides. The old attitude of informal…… with the CEO has been replaced by a new spirit of legalistic formality. When red flags arise, directors are quicker than ever to hire…… attorneys to…… potential wrongdoing.

That often leads to an elaborate game of shift the……. The….. of the moment is: «Put it in writing.» Some auditors are afraid even to talk to CEOs and CFOs about the appropriate accounting……… for complex………

The new…….. is making everything about running a company more difficult for CEOs. The watchdogs are playing a bigger role in……. management decisions about strategy, acquisitions, succession planning, crisis response, and what can be booked as earnings. «Life is going to be much tougher for the Imperial CEO,» says Robert S. Miller Jr., a…….. specialist. «It is what shareholders want.»

CEOs are now being managed with sticks. This is a fundamentally different…… philosophy than the one that prevailed during the bubble years, when bosses were primarily motivated with carrots – otherwise known as……. Both of these approaches were driven by the business crises: the…….. failure of corporate leaders in the 1980s, whose pay was not linked to………, and the greed of CEOs in the late ‘90s and early ‘00s, whose pay was linked to………

The new vigilance will almost certainly provide some clarity in corporate governance and cut down on…….. But as is often the case, the new rules may initially go too far and create their own distinctive…… of problems. Directors, auditors, and lawyers are going to get higher…… in the future. And the……. of their advice may well decline. Why? When really tough……. arise – involving risky……, aggressive……… or gray-area accounting – CEOs have always been able to turn to board members and professionals for advice. Now candid conversations are virtually taboo.

……… is an equally important danger. CEOs can soon become……… preferring to pursue strategies that are «safe» but ultimately unwise rather than risk confrontations with…… over bolder, but smarter, moves. Kenneth G. Langone, the Home Depot Inc. co-founder, warned of the danger that America would have «the best-governed, worst-managed» corporations in the world.

In a remarkably short period of time, Corporate America has moved from the age of the celebrity CEO to the age of the……. CEO. Chief executives are still in……, but their power is much more limited. The downsizing of the CEO has led, to a certain extent, to the supersizing of the……. That’s not necessarily a cure for everything that ails Corporate America. It is a clue that successful CEOs will have to be……. builders in the future. And it should be a warning to CEOs everywhere: The age of the absolute corporate monarch, such as AIG’s Greenberg, is over.

Source: Business Week (online), April 25, 2005 (excerpts)

Terms:

consensus, environment, micromanagement, liability, cooperation, treatment, turnaround, downsizing, exercised, helm, advisers, competitive, bankrupt, set, balance of power, mentality, performance, investigate, provided, regulators, fundamental, fees, stock options, independent, corporate governance, accounting scandal, run, destroy, consolidate, appreciate, relations, shareholder value, risk-averse, expertise, motto, shareholders, attitude, failures, effectively, claims, outside, blame, transactions, stock prices, abuses, quality, issues, deals, boards, charge, shifted, lawyers, auditors

Exercise 5. Translate into English.

Атакующий класс

Напомним схему классического корпоративного шантажа (greenmail). Атакующая структура покупает на открытом рынке некрупный пакет акций преуспевающей корпорации, после чего новоиспеченные акционеры начинают публично критиковать менеджмент компании. Помимо критики звучат и угрозы – например, обещания консолидировать более крупные пакеты акций и сменить руководство или заблокировать стратегические шаги компании. Конечной целью шантажиста является либо получение отступных за отказ от претензий, либо продажа своего пакета акций по завышенной цене. Практика greenmail на развитых рынках не слишком распространена: во-первых, западное деловое сообщество выработало систему защиты от «стервятников»; во-вторых, компания-агрессор немедленно попадает в черный список структур, вести с которыми бизнес опасно.

В России в 2000 году произошло несколько скандалов, которые были, по сути, адаптированными к российским условиям вариантами greenmail.

Встречайте нового акционера!

Стандартная версия русского корпоративного шантажа выглядит так. Некая структура приобретает на рынке крупный пакет акций компании с раздробленным уставным капиталом. Обычно речь идет о 15—25% акций «мишени». Затем новый акционер объявляет себя стратегическим партнером компании, одновременно предпринимая недружественные действия в отношении его менеджмента – от ареста ценных бумаг других акционеров под любым предлогом до организации проверок компании со стороны властных структур. Объявленная захватчиком цель – проведение внеочередного (extraordinary) собрания акционеров, на котором оппоненты агрессора будут максимально ослаблены. Когда старые акционеры поймут, что собрание может принять нежелательные для них решения, с ними можно начинать торг. Новый акционер объявляет сумму, за которую предприятию гарантировано спокойствие. Механизм передачи денег – выкуп акций по цене, в десятки раз превышающей рыночную.

Типичный пример российского корпоративного шантажа – конфликт вокруг АО «Уралхиммаш», крупнейшего в стране производителя химического оборудования. Не так давно предприниматель Павел Федулев приобрел околоконтрольный пакет акций компании. Дальнейшая борьба с оппонентами, также владеющими крупными пакетами акций «Уралхиммаша», включала в себя подделки реестра, проведение альтернативных собраний акционеров, обращения сторон в суд и к местным властям, захваты заводоуправления с участием работников милиции и частных охранных предприятий, кампании по компрометации противника в местных СМИ. Как выяснилось, нового акционера не интересовали дивиденды. Господин Федулев, спровоцировавший конфликт, в сентябре 2000 года продал акции «Уралхиммаша» структурам, близким к «Межрегионгазу». Позже в интервью «Ъ» он заявил, что весь скандал был обеспечением этой сделки и позволил увеличить цену пакета.

А вот пример greenmail, перешедшего в поглощение «мишени». В конце лета группа «Альфа-Эко» получила в дар от совладельца, торгового дома «Смирновъ», 45% акций компании. Сразу после этого ее офис был захвачен менеджерской командой группы «Альфа-Эко», а владелец 50% акций Борис Смирнов был отстранен от руководства. Сам господин Смирнов утверждает, что «Альфа-Эко» накануне конфликта предлагала выкупить у него акции торгового дома. «Их интересовали только деньги – в любой форме», – говорит господин Смирнов. Очевидно, «Альфа-Эко», начав атаку на торговый дом, выяснила, что оппонент крайне слаб, и предпочла откупным полный захват компании.

Источник: Дмитрий Бутрин. «Деньги», № 1—2, 17.01.2001 (отрывок)

Lesson 14
Corporate Scandals

Read and translate the text and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

The Fall of Enron
How ex-CEO Jeff Skilling’s strategy grew so complex that even his boss couldn’t get a handle on it

To former Enron CEO Jeffrey Skilling, there were two kinds of people in the world: those who got it and those who didn’t. «It» was Enron’s complex strategy for minting rich profits from a trading and risk-management business built essentially on assets owned by others. Vertically integrated companies like ExxonMobil, whose balance sheet was rich with oil reserves and gas stations, were dinosaurs to a contemptuous Skilling. «In the old days, people worked for the assets,» Skilling stated. «We’ve turned it around – what we’ve said is the assets work for the people.»

But who looks like Tyrannosaurus Rex now? As Enron struggles to salvage something from the nation’s largest bankruptcy case it’s clear that the real Enron was a far cry from the «asset light» market maker that Skilling proclaimed. And the financial maneuvering and off-balance-sheet partnerships that he and ex-CFO Andrew Fastow perfected to remove everything from telecom fiber to water companies from Enron’s debt-heavy balance sheet resulted in the company’s collapse. «Jeff’s theory was assets were bad, intellectual capital was good,» says a former executive. Employees accepted the rhetoric, but they «didn’t understand how it was funded.»

Neither did many others. Bankers, stock analysts, auditors, and Enron’s own board failed to comprehend the risks in this heavily leveraged trading giant. Enron’s bankruptcy filings show $13.1 billion in debt for the parent company and an additional $18.1 billion for affiliates. But that doesn’t include at least $20 billion more estimated to exist off the balance sheet. Kenneth Lay sparked the first wave of panic when he revealed that deals involving partnerships run by his CFO would knock $1.2 billion off shareholder equity. Lay was never able to explain how the partnerships worked or why anyone shouldn’t assume the worst – that they were set up to hide Enron’s problems, inflate earnings, and personally benefit the executives who managed some of them.

That uncertainty ultimately destroyed Enron’s best hope for a rescue: its deal to be acquired by its smaller but healthier competitor, Dynegy Inc. Now Enron is frantically seeking a banking partner to help maintain some shred of its once-mighty trading empire. Already, 4,000 Enron workers in Houston have lost their jobs. And hundreds of creditors are trying to recover part of the billions they’re owed.

From the beginning, Lay had a vision for Enron that went far beyond that of a traditional energy company. Lay formed Enron from the merger of two pipeline companies in 1985. In just 15 years, Enron grew from nowhere to be America’s 7th largest company, employing 21,000 staff in more than 40 countries. Business gurus raved. Enron was hailed as the business model of the future. Fortune magazine named Enron the nation’s most innovative company 5 years running and, a year before Skilling’s resignation, ranked Enron among its «10 Stocks to Last the Decade». «It was a child of deregulation, of rapid technological change, of very high innovation in business practices and processes, and of a culture that sought to rewrite the rules of competition and business management,» said Robert Bruner, professor of Darden School of Business.

Lay understood that deregulation of the energy business would offer vast new opportunities. To exploit them, he turned to Skilling, then a McKinsey consultant. Skilling was the architect of an increasingly complex financial structure. After he quit in August and CFO Fastow was fired Oct. 24, there was no one left to explain it.

Much of the blame for Enron’s collapse has focused on the partnerships, but the seeds of its destruction were planted well before the October surprises. Enron was already on shaky financial ground from a number of bad investments, including overseas projects ranging from a water business in England to a power distributor in Brazil. «You make enough billion-dollar mistakes, and they add up,» says one source. In June, Standard & Poor’s put the company on notice that its underperforming international assets were of growing concern. But S&P ultimately reaffirmed the credit ratings, based on Enron’s apparent willingness to sell assets and take other steps.

Behind all the analyses of Enron was the assumption that the core energy business was thriving. It was still growing rapidly, but margins were coming down as the market matured. Skilling’s answer to growing competition in energy trading was to push Enron’s innovative techniques into new arenas, everything from broadband to metals, steel, and even advertising time and space. Skilling knew he had to find a clever way to finance his big growth plans and manage the international problems without killing the company’s critical investment-grade credit rating.

«He’s heartbroken.» No one ever disputed that Skilling was clever. He took over as production director at a startup Aurora (III.) TV station at age 13 when an older staffer quit and he was the only one who knew how to operate the equipment. Skilling received a scholarship to university in Dallas. After graduation, he went to work for a Houston bank. The bank later went bust while Skilling was at Harvard Business School. Skilling said that fiasco made him determined to keep strict risk controls on Enron’s trading business. His brother Tom, a Chicago TV weatherman, says of him: «He’s heartbroken over what’s going on there… We were not raised to look on these kinds of things absent emotion.»

Enron’s «intellectual capital» was Skilling’s pride and joy. He recruited more than 250 new MBAs each year from the top business schools. Meteorologists and PhDs in math and economics helped analyze and model the vast amounts of data that Enron used in its trading operations. A forced ranking system weeded out the poor performers. «It was as competitive internally as it was externally,» says one former executive.

It was no surprise then that Skilling would turn to a young finance wizard, Fastow, to help him raise capital for his rapidly expanding empire. Fastow was recruited to Enron in 1990 from Continental Bank. Articulate, handsome, and mature beyond his years, he became Enron’s CFO at age 36. In 1999, he earned CFO Magazine’s CFO Excellence Award. Skilling told the magazine: «We didn’t want someone stuck in the past, since the industry of yesterday is no longer. Andy has the intelligence and the youthful exuberance to think in new ways.»

But Skilling’s fondness for Fastow was not widely shared. Many colleagues considered him a difficult man, prone to attacking those he didn’t like in Enron’s group performance reviews. When he formed and took a personal stake in the LJM partnerships that blew up in October, the conflict of interest inherent in those deals only added to his colleagues’ distaste for him. Enron admits Fastow earned more than $30 million from the partnerships. The Enron CFO wasn’t any more popular on Wall Street, where investment bankers bristled at the finance group’s «we’re smarter than you guys» attitude. Indeed, that came back to haunt Enron when it needed capital commitments to stem the liquidity crisis. «It’s the sort of organization about which people said, `Screw them. We don’t really owe them anything,»’ says one investment banker.

While LJM shocked many, the deal was just the latest version of a financing strategy that Skilling and Fastow had used many times since the mid-’90s to fund investments with private equity while keeping assets and debt off the balance sheet. «They were put together with good intentions to offset some risk,» says S&P analyst Ron Barone. «It’s conceivable that it got away from them.»

Did it ever. The off-balance-sheet structures grew increasingly complex and risky. Some, with names like Osprey, Whitewing, and Marlin, were revealed in Enron’s financial filings and even rated by the big credit-rating agencies. But almost no one seemed to have a clear picture of Enron’s total debt, what might hasten repayment, or how some of the deals could dilute shareholder equity. «No one ever sat down and added up how many liabilities would come due if this company got downgraded,» says one lender. Many investors were unaware of provisions in some deals that could dump the debts back on Enron. At the same time, the value of the assets in many of these partnerships was dropping, making it even harder for Enron to cover the debt.

In theory, Enron had mechanisms in place to assess risk and accurately report financial numbers. Enron’s external auditor was the once-venerable Arthur Andersen, dubbed the «Marine Corps of accounting» for the hard-nosed attention to accounting standards it once exemplified. Enron required that deals be rigorously analysed, a process that often included review by the legal department of the originating unit, the corporate legal department, the chief risk officer and chief accounting officer.

However, the system of checks and balances in Enron was easily overridden. Deal originators could determine the total value of their proposals by manipulating the long-term price for whatever was being bought or sold. Their bonuses were based on the total value of the deal, not the cash it brought in. All this was designed to boost the quarterly reports, made possible by «mark-to-market» accounting, a system Skilling pushed Enron to adopt in 1991 that allows a company to report as current revenue the total value of a deal over its projected lifetime. Mark-to-market in Enron made earnings look good, pumping up the stock price and increasing the value of stock options executives received as compensation. «It was a moral hazard being able to record your profits immediately,» one former executive said. «It created many temptations.»

High hopes. Skilling was determined not to scale back his grandiose broadband trading dreams or the resulting price-to-earnings multiple of almost 60 that they helped create for Enron’s stock. At its peak in August, 2000, about a third of the stock’s $90 price was attributable to expectations for growth of broadband trading.

That rapidly rising stock price – up 55% in ‘99 and 87% in 2000 – gave Skilling and Fastow a hot currency for luring investors into their off-balance-sheet deals. They quickly became dependent on such deals to finance their expansion efforts. Trouble is, Enron’s stock came tumbling back to earth when market valuations fell in 2001. Its far-flung operational troubles were taking their own toll. In its broadband business, for instance, overcapacity and drop of share prices made it hard to find creditworthy parties for trading. And after spending some $1.2 billion to build and operate a fiber-optic network, Enron found itself with an asset whose value was rapidly deteriorating.

«Something to prove.» And the international problems weren’t going away. Enron’s 65% stake in the $3 billion Dabhol power plant in India was mired in a dispute with its largest customer, which refused to pay for electricity. Some Indian politicians have despised the deal for years, claiming that cunning and even corrupt Enron executives cut a deal that charged India too much for its power.

Enron’s ill-fated 1998 investment in the water-services business was another drag on earnings. Many saw the purchase of Wessex Water in England as a «consolation prize» for Rebecca Mark, Enron executive who had negotiated the Dabhol deal. The Wessex deal formed the core of Azurix Corp., to be run by Mark. But British regulators reduced the rates the utility could charge. Meanwhile, Mark acquired more high-priced water assets. «Once (Skilling) put her there, he let her go wild,» says a former executive. «And she’s going to go wild because she has something to prove.»

But if Azurix was a prime example of Enron’s investment strategy, it also demonstrated how the company tried to disguise its problems with financial alchemy. To set up the company, Enron formed a partnership called the Atlantic Water Trust, in which it held a 50% stake. That kept Wessex off Enron’s balance sheet. Enron’s partner in the joint venture was Marlin Water Trust, which consisted of institutional investors. To attract them, Enron promised to back up the debt with its own stock if necessary. But if Enron’s credit rating fell below investment grade and the stock fell below a certain point, Enron could be responsible for the partnership’s $915 million in debt.

Some partnerships had been questioned by an executive, Sherron Watkins, the whistle-blower of the scandal. She voiced her alarm in a letter to Lay saying, «I am incredibly nervous that we will implode in a wave of accounting scandals.»

The end for Enron came when its murky finances frightened off investors and Dynegy. Dynegy’s bankers spent hours studying a supposedly final draft of Enron’s about-to-be-released report – only to discover two pages of damning new numbers when the quarterly statement was made publicly available. Debt coming due in the fourth quarter increased from under $1 billion to $2.8 billion. Even worse, cash on hand shrunk from $3 billion to $1.2 billion. Dynegy «had a two-hour meeting with the new treasurer of Enron, who had been in that seat for two weeks,» said a source close to the deal. «He had no clue where the numbers came from.»

Respect for assets. On Dec. 5, a suit was filed against Fastow, Skilling, and 27 other Enron executives. They were charged with illegally making more than $1 billion off stock sales before Enron collapsed.

Would the cash squeeze have caught up to Enron, even without Skilling’s and Fastow’s fancy financing? Credit analysts argue that the debt would have been manageable without the crisis of confidence that dried up Enron’s trading business and access to the capital markets. But even they have a new respect for old-fashioned, high-quality assets. «When things get really tough, hard assets are the kind you can depend upon,» says S&P’s Shipman. That’s something Enron’s whiz-kid financiers failed to appreciate.

Source: Business Week (online), December 17, 2001 (abridged)

Essential Vocabulary

1. vertically integrated companies – вертикально-интегрированные компании

2. market maker – «делатель рынка»: участник финансового рынка, который постоянно котирует цены покупателя и продавца и вступает по ним в сделки по финансовым инструментам за свой счет или за счет своих клиентов

3. off-balance-sheet – забалансовый

4. stock analyst – аналитик акций

5. affiliate n – аффилированная компания

6. shareholder equity (SE) – ценность компании для акционеров: все активы минус все обязательства компании

7. uncertainty n – неопределенность

uncertain a – неопределенный

8. resignation n – уход в отставку, отставка

resign v – отказываться от должности, слагать обязанности, уходить в отставку

9. deregulation n – дерегулирование: уменьшение государственного регулирования кредитной системы, финансовых рынков для поощрения действия рыночных сил и повышения эффективности экономики

10. overseas a – заграничный, иностранный

11. Standard & Poor’s (S&P) – Стэндард энд Пурс (США): ведущая фирма по финансовому консультированию и установлению кредитного рейтинга ценных бумаг

12. credit rating – кредитный рейтинг

13. investment-grade credit rating – кредитный рейтинг инвестиционного уровня

14. start-up n – создание новой компании; вновь созданная компания; время, необходимое для начала производства и доведения до оптимального уровня после заключения контракта

start up v – создавать новую компанию

startup a – только что созданный

15. scholarship n – стипендия

16. rank n – ряд, порядок; звание, чин, должность, ранг

ranking n – расположение, расстановка, ранжирование

17. debt n – долг, долговые инструменты

debtor n – должник

18. repayment n – выплата, возврат, погашение

repay v – выплачивать, возвращать, погашать

19. dilution n – разбавление, разводнение (капитала)

dilute v – разбавлять, разводнять

20. liability n – обязательство, задолженность, пассив

21. downgrade v – присвоить более низкий рейтинг, понижать

22.lender n – кредитор, заимодавец

lend v – одалживать, давать взаймы

23. provision n – снабжение, обеспечение; резерв, запас; положение, условие

24. checks and balances – система сдержек и противовесов

25. originator n – инициатор операций; инвестиционный банк, работающий с потенциальным эмитентом с самой ранней стадии планирования займа

26. mark-to-market – ежедневная переоценка биржевых позиций для учета изменения цен, переоценка портфеля ценных бумаг на основе текущих цен; ежедневная переоценка чистых активов

27. price-to-earnings (P/E) – отношение цены акции к прибыли

28. multiple n – множитель, коэффициент

29. peak n – пик, максимум

peak v – достичь пика, максимума

30. creditworthiness n – кредитоспособность

creditworthy a – кредитоспособный

31. utility n – польза, экономическая выгода; коммунальное предприятие

32. joint venture (JV) – совместное предприятие

33. whistle-blower – лицо, поднявшее тревогу при обнаружении злоупотребления

34. quarter (Q) n – квартал

quarterly a – квартальный

35. treasury n – казначейство, казначейский департамент

treasurer n – казначей

36. file a suit – подать иск

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. What was Enron’s attitude towards tangible assets? 2. For what purpose were Enron’s partnerships set up? 3. How was Enron established and how did it evolve over 15 years? 4. How did professionals initially perceive Enron? 5. Why was Enron having financial problems? 6. What did Enron do to counteract the growing competition in energy trading? 7. What was the financial strategy that Enron employed? 8. How did its CFO contribute to Enron’s collapse? 9. What kind of problems did Enron have with its international projects? 10. What were the key strategic mistakes that Enron made?

Exercise 2*. Find terms in the text that match definitions given below and make sentences of your own with each term.

1. insolvent debtor

2. a person appointed and authorized to examine books of account

3. a rival for sales of the same or similar merchandise

4. the legal combination of corporations in which their assets are transferred to the resulting successor corporation

5. the aid or award given to a student by a fund, school, or institution, on the basis of his merit or need

6. the act of pledging, obligating, or engaging oneself

7. to equalize or counterbalance; to compensate

8. a process instituted in a court of justice for the enforcement or protection of a right or claim

9. the innermost or the most essential part of anything

10. accumulation of stores or materials beforehand; a stipulation

Exercise 3. Name Enron’s stakeholders and describe how they were affected by its collapse.

Exercise 4. Write speeches for the prosecutor and counsel for defense that they could used during the Enron trial.

Exercise 5*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

The Pride and the Fall of Enron

While Enron grew rapidly through the 1990s, some of the worst manifestations of its culture – obsessions with……… the stock price and exotic accounting – were also growing. Though the corporation’s character flaws can be traced to its earliest days, they flourished under top executive Jeff Skilling. He didn’t act in a vacuum. Enron had a distracted, hands-off chairman, a compliant…… of directors and an impotent……. of accountants, auditors and lawyers. But it was Skilling’s relentless push for creativity and……… that fostered a growth-at-any-cost culture, drowning out voices of caution and overriding all……….

The creative aggressiveness Skilling deemed essential to dominating new markets went untempered by good business sense or……. discipline. The same……. lauded as key to the company’s future were also key to its collapse. «It was all about taking……. now and worrying about the details later,» said one former Enron deal maker. «The Enron system was just ripe for………»

A key component of Enron’s culture was…… a certain kind of person. In the late 1990s, the…….. department began giving…….. a new set of «cheat sheets» on what to look for in……. candidates. «It was not your typical, hard-working, extracurricular-activities type of student. It was a sharp-dressing extrovert, someone who would fit in as a ruthless trader. We weren’t looking for softies.»

Drawn from Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Rice, and other leading universities, the new hires were smart, even brilliant, but did not prove to be good…… «If you keep telling people how smart they are, after awhile they start to think they have nothing else they need to learn,» said one former manager, «It was such a high-achievement…….. that there wasn’t close……. to make sure people learned the……. of good management.»

To…….. his particular………, Skilling encouraged all…… to use an………. process. That process – «rank and yank,» as it came to be called – came to epitomize the company culture. Employees spent about two weeks annually……. fellow employees’ value to the company, from 1 down to 5. The process could be brutal, and often led to employees……… their peers to make themselves look better. And each……. was forced to rank a fifth of the employees as 5s.

«We hired the best and brightest people, but now they were telling us we had to arbitrarily…….. 20% of them. Why would we want to do that?» a manager said. «Every company in America uses some sort of…….. system, but the way it was used at Enron was just too divisive.»

The cultural changes in the company even threatened the very language that defined the company’s……..: respect, integrity, communication and excellence. In the late 1990s, the company’s Visions and Values…….. considered expressing the principles with words such as «smart,» «bold» and «aggressive». The effort……., but it spoke volumes about what was happening at Enron. Smart, bold and aggressive people tend to get impatient with……. The relentless……… to create new ways to make money – or appear to make money – spawned an environment where raising questions about a……. was considered disloyal or, worse, an indication someone «didn’t get it».

Some observers believe Skilling’s style was a product of his……… with McKinsey. «Rank and yank» was a variation on a system developed by McKinsey. The «asset light» mantra that Skilling preached – of a company that owned few hard assets and made all its money off……. and services – was also a McKinsey-…….. concept. But like many……… firms, McKinsey has gained a reputation as a flock of thinkers, not doers.

Skilling’s background was reflected in his……. approach to details. The McKinsey influence can also be seen in his belief that Enron could adapt the…….. it developed in creating energy trading markets to such disparate products as Internet bandwidth, paper products and even weather. The belief was so strong that it wasn’t felt necessary to hire……… with telecommunications…….. to build its broadband business. Instead, it simply gave the job to successful gas traders.

«These were people that didn’t know how to spell `broadband’, never mind…… that business,» said a former senior vice president. «But if you questioned them and the wisdom of the business, you would be ridiculed because you `didn’t get it’. «And when a business did fail or a deal fell apart, more effort was put into hiding the consequences than owning up to the problem. Debt and losses were anathema to Enron’s…………

Source: Tom Fowler, Houston Chronicle, Oct. 20, 2002 (excerpts)

Terms.

consulting, employee-evaluation, rating, hands-off, recruiters, profits, vision, trading, job, financial statements, ranking, human resources, experience, environment, bonuses, values, board, checks and balances, executives, staff, competitiveness, fiscal, decisions, corruption, hiring, managers, monitoring, enforce, units, downgrading, division, fire, Task Force, rules, demand, deal, endorsed, skills, run, failed, background, basics

Exercise 6. Translate into English.

Как это делалось

Финансовое благополучие «Энрона» пошатнулось после нескольких неудачных сделок. В таких обстоятельствах руководство фирмы, как правило, предпринимает экстренные меры: избавляется от второстепенных и убыточных проектов, консолидирует ресурсы и приглашает на работу специалистов по управлению кризисными ситуациями.

Руководство «Энрона» пошло другим путем. Оно придумало и реализовало хитроумные схемы искажения отчетности и сокрытия астрономических долгов. Менеджеры компании учредили ряд фирм, в основном в офшорных зонах, с которыми «Энрон» вступил в партнерские отношения, образовав товарищества с ограниченной ответственностью. Фирмы-товарищи стали скупать неликвидные активы «Энрона». Вместе с активами, которые правильнее назвать пассивами, из баланса «Энрона» исключались его долги. С «Энроном» эти псевдопартнеры расплачивались акциями самого «Энрона», полученными от «Энрона» же в качестве его доли уставного капитала и показанными в отчетах компании как активы. На одних только Каймановых островах энроновцы учредили более 700 подставных (dummy) фирм, а по всему миру – более трех тысяч. Через офшорные счета перетекали в компанию не облагаемые налогами деньги инвесторов. В лексиконе Уолл-стрит такая махинация называется «схема Понци» – по имени мошенника Чарльза Понци, построившего в 20-е годы прошлого века первую американскую финансовую пирамиду.

Однако было бы полбеды, если бы компания всего лишь скрывала таким образом свои трудности. Осознав, что компания идет ко дну, ее руководители стали сбрасывать свои пакеты акций, покуда они не упали в цене. Естественно, акционеры, не осведомленные об истинном положении дел, их примеру не следовали и, напротив, охотно покупали акции «Энрона», которые превратились в бумагу. Эти действия называются использованием инсайдерской информации в целях личного обогащения и караются по американским законам в уголовном порядке.

Одни только пенсионные фонды Америки потеряли на своих инвестициях в «Энрон» полтора миллиарда долларов. Сгорели пенсии государственных служащих, учителей, полицейских и пожарных.

Трюки такого масштаба, само собой разумеется, невозможны без сговора с аудиторами. Они и сговорились. После того как власти призвали к ответу обслуживавшую «Энрон» компанию «Артур Андерсен» – одну из пяти крупнейших аудиторских фирм США, – она уволила главу своего хьюстонского офиса Дэвида Данкена, отвечавшего за аудит корпорации-банкрота. У «Андерсена» затребовали документацию, касающуюся «Энрона». В ответ «Андерсен» сообщил, что, к великому сожалению, значительная часть документов как в бумажном, так и в электронном виде уничтожена по распоряжению Данкена.

Источник: Еженедельный журнал, 1.2.2002

Lesson 15
Corporate Governance

Read and translate the text and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary

Corporate governance

Corporate governance is the set of processes, policies, laws and institutions affecting the way a corporation is directed or controlled. Corporate governance also includes the relationships among the stakeholders and the goals for which the corporation is governed.

Corporate governance is a multi-faceted subject. An important part of corporate governance deals with accountability, fiduciary duty and mechanisms of auditing and control. Thus, corporate governance players should comply with codes to the overall good of all constituents. Another important focus is economic efficiency, both within the corporation (such as the best practice guidelines) and externally.

Recently there has been considerable interest in the corporate governance practices of corporations, particularly since the high-profile collapse of Enron. Also, during the Asian financial crisis, a lot of the attention fell into the corporate governance systems of the developing world.

The corporate governance structure spells out the rules and procedures for making decisions on corporate affairs. It also provides the mechanisms through which the company objectives are set, as well as the means of attaining and monitoring the achievement of those objectives.

As a result of the separation of stakeholder influence from control in modern organizations, a system of corporate governance controls is implemented on behalf of stakeholders to reduce agency costs and information asymmetry. Corporate governance is used to monitor whether outcomes are in accordance with plans; and to motivate the organization to be more fully informed in order to maintain or alter organizational activity. Primarily, corporate governance is the mechanism by which individuals are motivated to align their actual behaviors with the overall corporate good.

Parties to corporate governance

Parties involved in corporate governance include the governing or regulatory body (e.g. the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission), the CEO, the BoD, management, shareholders and other stakeholders.

All parties to corporate governance have an interest in the effective performance of the organization. Directors, workers and management receive salaries, benefits and reputation; whilst shareholders receive capital return. Customers receive goods and services; suppliers receive compensation for their goods or services. In return these individuals provide value in the form of natural, human, social and other capital.

A key factor in an individual’s decision to participate in an organization (e.g. through providing capital or expertise or labor) is trust that they will receive a fair share of the organizational returns. If some parties receive more than their fair return (e.g. exorbitant executive remuneration), then participants may choose to not continue participating (e.g. shareholders withdrawing their capital). Corporate governance is the key mechanism through which this trust is maintained across all stakeholders.

Principles

Key elements of good corporate governance principles include honesty, trust and integrity, openness, performance orientation, responsibility and accountability, mutual respect, and commitment to the organization. In particular, senior executives should conduct themselves honestly and ethically, especially concerning actual or apparent conflicts of interest, and disclosure in financial reports.

Commonly accepted principles of corporate governance include:

– Rights of, and equitable treatment of, shareholders.

– Interests of other stakeholders.

– Role and responsibilities of the board.

– Integrity and ethical behavior.

– Disclosure and transparency.

Mechanisms and controls

Corporate governance mechanisms and controls are designed to reduce the inefficiencies that arise from moral hazard and adverse selection. For example, to monitor managers’ behavior, an independent auditor attests the accuracy of information provided by management to investors.

Internal corporate governance controls

Internal corporate governance controls monitor activities and then take corrective action to accomplish organizational goals. Examples include:

 – Monitoring by the board of directors: The BoD, with its legal authority to hire, fire and compensate top management, safeguards invested capital. Regular board meetings allow potential problems to be identified, discussed and avoided. Whilst non-executive directors are thought to be more independent, they may not always result in more effective corporate governance. Executive directors possess superior knowledge of the decision-making process and therefore evaluate top management on the basis of the quality of its decisions that lead to financial outcomes, ex ante.

 – Remuneration: Performance-based remuneration is designed to relate some proportion of salary to individual performance. It may be in the form of cash or non-cash payments such as shares and share options, superannuation or other benefits. Such incentive schemes, however, are reactive in the sense that they provide no mechanism for preventing mistakes or opportunistic behavior.

– Audit committees.

External corporate governance controls

External corporate governance controls encompass the controls external stakeholders exercise over the organization:

– debt covenants;

– external auditors;

– government regulations.

Rules versus principles

Rules are typically thought to be simpler to follow than principles, demarcating a clear line between acceptable and unacceptable behavior. Rules also reduce discretion on the part of individual managers or auditors.

In practice rules can be more complex than principles. They may be ill equipped to deal with new types of transactions not covered by the code. Moreover, even if clear rules are followed, one can still find a way to circumvent their underlying purpose – this is harder to achieve if one is bound by a broader principle.

Corporate governance models around the world

There are many different models of corporate governance around the world. The liberal model that is common in Anglo-American countries tends to give priority to the interests of shareholders. The coordinated model that one finds in Continental Europe and Japan also recognizes the interests of workers, managers, suppliers, customers, and the community. Both models have distinct competitive advantages, but in different ways. The liberal model of corporate governance encourages radical innovation and cost competition, whereas the coordinated model of corporate governance facilitates incremental innovation and quality competition.

In the United States, a corporation is governed by a BoD, which has the power to choose the CEO. He has broad power to manage the corporation on a daily basis, but needs to get board approval for certain major actions, such as hiring his/her immediate subordinates, raising money, acquiring another company, major capital expansions, or other expensive projects. Other duties of the board may include policy setting, decision making, monitoring management’s performance, or corporate control.

The BoD is selected by and responsible to the shareholders. It is the responsibility of directors to endorse the organization’s strategy, develop directional policy, appoint, supervise and remunerate senior executives and to ensure accountability of the organization to its owners and authorities. But the bylaws of many companies make it difficult for all but the largest shareholders to have any influence over the makeup of the board; normally, individual shareholders are not offered a choice of board nominees among which to choose, but are merely asked to rubberstamp the nominees of the sitting board. Perverse incentives have pervaded many corporate boards, with board members beholden to the chief executive whose actions they are intended to oversee. Frequently, members of the BoDs are CEO’s of other corporations, which some see as a conflict of interest.

Codes and guidelines

Corporate governance principles and codes have been developed in different countries and issued from stock exchanges, corporations, or institutional investors, with the support of governments and international organizations. As a rule, compliance with these governance recommendations is not mandated by law, although the codes linked to stock exchange listing requirements may have a coercive effect.

Companies quoted on the Toronto and London Stock Exchanges formally need not follow the recommendations of their respective national codes. However, they must disclose whether they follow the recommendations in those documents and, where not, they should provide explanations concerning divergent practices. Such disclosure requirements exert pressure on listed companies for compliance.

In contrast, the guidelines issued by associations of directors, corporate managers and individual companies tend to be wholly voluntary. For example, The GM Board Guidelines reflect the company’s efforts to improve its own governance capacity. Such documents may have a multiplying effect prompting other companies to adopt similar documents and standards of best practice. One of the most influential guidelines has been the 1999 OECD Principles of Corporate Governance revised in 2004.

Corporate governance and firm performance

In its ‘Global Investor Opinion Survey’ of 200 institutional investors undertaken in 2000, McKinsey found that 80% of the respondents would pay a premium for well-governed companies. They defined a well-governed company as one that had mostly outside directors, undertook formal evaluation of its directors, and was responsive to investors’ requests for information on governance issues. The size of the premium varied by market, from 11% for Canadian companies to around 40% for companies where the regulatory background was least certain (in Morocco, Egypt and Russia).

Other studies have linked broad perceptions of the quality of companies to superior share price performance. A study of five-year cumulative returns of Fortune’s survey of ‘most admired firms’ found that those «most admired» had an average return of 125%, whilst the ‘least admired’ firms returned 80%. In a separate study Business Week enlisted institutional investors and ‘experts’ to assist in differentiating between boards with good and bad governance and found that companies with the highest rankings had the highest financial returns.

Source: Wikipedia

Essential Vocabulary

1. corporate governance – корпоративное управление

2. fiduciary (fid) a – доверенный, порученный, фидуциарный, основанный на доверии; доверенное лицо, опекун, душеприказчик по завещанию, попечитель

3. constituent n – составная часть, элемент; избиратель

constituent a – имеющий право голоса, избирающий; законодательный; составной

4. best practice – лучшая практика

5. information asymmetry – информационная асимметрия

6. regulator n – регулирующий орган, орган надзора

regulation n – регулирование, правило

regulate v – регулировать

regulatory a – регулирующий

7. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) – Комиссия по ценным бумагам и биржам

8. withdrawal n – изъятие, увод, уход, удаление

withdraw v – изымать, отнимать, отказываться, уходить, отходить

9. disclosure n – раскрытие (информации), разглашение

disclose v – раскрывать (информацию), разглашать

10.transparency n – прозрачность

transparent a – прозрачный

11. controls n – регулирующие устройства, рычаги или механизмы контроля

12. moral hazard – моральный риск (риск того, что действия по ослаблению последствий рискованных действий повысят вероятность таких событий)

13. executive director – исполнительный директор

14. superannuation n – пенсия по выслуге лет

15. ex ante – ожидаемый, предполагаемый

16. scheme n – план, программа, схема, диаграмма, структура

17. covenant n – договор, условие или статья договора, ограничивающие действия одной или двух сторон

18. discretion n – усмотрение, свобода действий; полномочия; осторожность, осмотрительность

discretionary a – предоставленный на усмотрение, дискреционный

19. subordinate n – подчиненный

subordinate (to) v – подчинять, ставить в зависимость

subordinate a – зависимый, подчиненный, второстепенный, придаточный

subordinated a – субординированный, младший по объему прав

20. raise money (capital, funds) – привлекать деньги (капитал, средства)

21. expansion n – рост, экспансия, расширение производства, продаж и т. п.

expand v – расширять

22. endorsement n – индоссамент, одобрение, передаточная надпись на векселе, свидетельство известной личности о качестве товара

endorse v – индоссировать, делать передаточную надпись на векселе, подтверждать правильность, подписываться

23. bylaw n – подзаконный акт, регламент, внутренние правила и регламент деятельности компании

24. nominee n – кандидат; лицо, выдвинутое на должность; получатель чего-либо по доверенности

nomination n – номинация, выставление, выдвижение кандидата, назначение на должность

nominate v – предлагать кандидата, назначать на должность

25. mandate n – мандат, наказ, доверенность, поручение

mandate v – передавать под мандат, обязывать

mandatory a – обязательный, принудительный, мандатный

26. listing n – листинг (котировка на бирже)

list n – список

list v – внести в листинг, перечислять

27. London Stock Exchange (LSE) – Лондонская фондовая биржа

28. respondent n – респондент, ответчик (в суде, в ходе опроса или переписи населения)

29. Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) – Организация экономического сотрудничества и развития (ОЭСР)

30. premium (pm, prem) n – премия, маржа

31. background n – задний план, фон, обстановка; подготовка, образование, квалификация

background a – фоновой, прошлый

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. What is corporate governance? 2. What are the important foci of corporate governance? 3. Why has the interest in corporate governance strengthened recently? 4. Who are the parties to corporate governance? 5. What are the key principles of corporate governance? 6. What are the internal corporate governance controls? 7. What are the relative merits of executive and non-executive directors? 8. What are the external corporate governance controls? 9. Are rules better suited than principles to practical implementation of corporate governance? 10. What are the competitive advantages of the liberal and coordinated models of corporate governance? 11. What authority do BoDs have in the U.S.? 12. What is the main difference between corporate governance codes and guidelines? 13. How does the quality of corporate governance affect performance of a company?

Exercise 2*. Find terms in the text that match definitions given below and make sentences of your own with each term.

1. individuals associated together by the fact of residence in the same locality, or of subjection to the same laws and regulations

2. indicating trustee or his office; accepted only because the public has faith in its value

3. empowered to appoint or elect a representative; serving to make up a thing; component

4. a particular course or model of action

5. that which comes out of or results from something; the consequence; the conclusion

6. specialized knowledge

7. an agreement between two or more persons to do or refrain from doing some act; an incidental clause in a legal agreement

8. to assign by writing one’s name on the back; to sanction, ratify or approve

9. a standing rule of an organized group, created for the regulation of its internal organization and the governing of its members; a local law or ordinance enacted by a municipality or other community

Exercise 3. You are a corporate governance expert hired by a Russian company to introduce appropriate corporate governance procedures and develop its corporate governance code. You have to explain to the CEO the potential benefits of the good corporate governance track record and create the corporate governance principles for the company.

Exercise 4*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

Techniques that Keep Staff Toeing the Line

According to Sir David Tweedie, chairman of the UK International Accounting Standards Board, the……. and negligence that made a mockery of…….. in the US came down to one thing: greed. «The excessive………. was obscene,» he says. «75% of…….. issued by major companies in America went to the top five…… By fiddling the……., you could end up making so much money from stock options that you didn’t have to work thereafter – and neither did your family for several generations.»

Sir David is equally scathing about those involved in corporate governance who……. to prevent problems. In his view, executive…… failed; non-executives were kept in the dark;……. committees failed;……. fell asleep at the wheel;…… agencies did none too well;…… missed it; the…….. failed to regulate; and the…….. and lawyers were part of the problem, helping companies with their questionable……..

«That is why it was such a shock to corporate America,» he explains. «It wasn’t just one little piece gone wrong, but a whole line of…….. that went flat. The whole system was collapsing.»

Since 2001, the debate about corporate governance has spun off in many directions. It has taken in executive remuneration, financial……. standards, the…….. of non-executive directors, auditor……… investor trust, the split between the roles of…….. and chief executive, and wider……… The unifying theme in all such……. is that they primarily concern company boards. The subtext is clear: corporate governance is the preserve of the very…….. business people.

Yet corporate governance has far wider resonance. The Turnbull Report, aimed at spreading……. in UK governance, made clear that while…….. for internal control ultimately rests with a board…….. involves employees too. «All employees have some responsibility for internal control as part of their……… for achieving objectives,» the report states. «The system of internal control should be…….. in the operations of the company and form part of its culture.»

Bill Waite, chief executive of the Risk Advisory Group, says that like so many other things in business, governance involves the…….. and…….. of a workforce. «The biggest risk in any company comes from the…….. Even where the…….. is external, you usually find an employee has been befriended and then exploited.»

On the other hand, staff can also be antennae for…….. When investigating the Tyco International fraud, the Manhattan District Attorney remarked that he found it «extremely troublesome… that no………. had come forward.» The majority of FTSE 500 companies now have these………. in place.

Traditionally, of course…….. practices have been seen as somewhat beneath the interest of boards. Yet if the systems and procedures operating within an organisation to…….. risks are governance issues, theoretically that ought to change. So how far should companies go towards embedding……… behaviour?

Andrew Wilson, director of the Ashridge Centre for Business and Society, says the answer depends on both the…….. culture of individual companies and the…….. business cultures in which those companies………. US companies tend to take a very……….-driven attitude to governance, setting down on paper exactly what is expected of employees. «Gift policies sometimes say a case of wine is inappropriate, while a bottle of wine is fine – it is that detailed», he explains.

Meanwhile, European companies prefer broad principles that allow greater……. for individual……… Ideally, says Mr. Wilson, governance should allow for «disciplined……….».

«A rule-based, bureaucratic……… encourages people to think about what they can get away with, when what you want are sensible judgements in line with business…….. Perhaps, the classic question to ask is „How would I feel if this (action) was reported in the press?“

Although detailed rules make it easier for an auditor to control its clients, they also make it easier for people to work out exactly what to do to get around them. «An investment bank will come up with a……. in three seconds,» he says. «In contrast, a……. will catch all variations.»

According to Brian Gregory from Oracle, corporate governance may serve to break down «the fortress HR formality», as boards take a greater interest in an area normally seen as off-limits. «There has been a huge amount of attention on……., but so much less on the people aspects of risk,» he says.

The renewed…… on corporate governance has given a spur for HR…….. systems to be developed that are able to interact with accountancy and other business systems, he says. Information about the skills, competencies……… aspirations and…… of individual employees is now no more than a few mouse clicks away from…….-conscious board members. Modern HR software enables additional……. on employee risk. «At the end of the day,» concludes Mr. Gregory, «governance is about making sure there are no surprises.»

Source: Financial Times

Terms:

SEC, boards, audit, investment banks, focus, fraud, corporate governance, accounts, failed, auditors, analysts, checks and balances, reporting, procedure, effectiveness, background, independence, operate, competence, chairman, internal, empowerment, malfeasance, principle, accountancy, whistleblowers, conflicts of interest, credit rating, remuneration, controls, issues, executives, senior, stock options, expenses claims, mitigate, best practice, responsibility, deals, managing risks, accountability, discretion, embedded, quality, staff, threat, HR, ethical, domestic, compliance, scope, approach, values, scheme, security, IT

Exercise 5. Translate into English.

Корпоративное управление в ТНК-ВР

Стратегия ТНК-ВР подчеркивает важность прозрачности и хорошего корпоративного управления в построении русской компании мирового класса и достижении уровня, сопоставимого с уровнем наших международных коллег.

ТНК-ВР рассматривает хорошее корпоративное управление как ключевой двигатель создания ценностей. Этика управления и профессионализм – фундамент, на котором строятся эксплуатационные усовершенствования.

В течение следующих пяти лет ТНК-ВР будет внедрять стандарты корпоративного управления, которые помогут достигнуть самого высокого уровня не только на российском рынке, но и с течением времени позволят конкурировать с лидерами международного рынка.

Совместно с высоким качеством человеческого капитала, полученным от трех компаний-предшественниц, высокие стандарты управления обеспечат ТНК-ВР устойчивым фундаментом для дальнейшего роста.

Совет директоров из 10 членов (с одинаковым количеством представителей двух акционеров компании – ВР и AAR) управляет ТНК-ВР. Правление имеет два комитета – Комитет по аудиту и Комитет по компенсациям. Ежедневное управление компанией выполняет команда высшего руководства.

Точная и своевременная информация – основа хорошего корпоративного управления. Прозрачность, обеспеченная своевременным потоком точной информации от производства до управления (и обратно), дает возможность эффективного прогнозирования и планирования, принятия обоснованных решений и логичного распределения ресурсов.

ТНК-ВР находится на стадии реализации нескольких проектов, целью которых является повышение уровня корпоративного управления и увеличение прозрачности. Так, широкомасштабный проект трансформации бухгалтерского учета (ATP) начался в начале 2004-го и был нацелен на модернизацию систем и практики учета. Как первый проект подобного рода в российской нефтяной промышленности, он разрабатывался для того, чтобы компания получала в ускоренном режиме более точную и полную информацию для нужд внешней и внутренней отчетности. В ходе проекта были достигнуты следующие цели:

– время, необходимое для закрытия данных, сократилось до 10 дней;

– был разработан единый план счетов (chart of accounts);

– учет в соответствии со стандартами МСФО (IAS) осуществляется в регионах;

– сохранность и целостность данных обеспечивается внедренными и контролируемыми системами.

В дополнение к этому было начато внедрение проекта по усовершенствованию системы внутреннего контроля и «Кодекса деловой практики и корпоративных стандартов».

Источник: www.tnk-bp.ru

Lesson 16
Corporate Social Responsibility

Read and translate the texts and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

People, Planet and Profit

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) refers to a company’s obligation to be sensitive to the needs of all its stakeholders in its business operations. The principle is closely linked with the imperative of ensuring that these operations are «sustainable». ‘Sustainable development’ was defined by the 1987 Brundtland Commission as development that «meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of the future generation to meet their own needs.» In other words, meeting the goals of sustainable development means searching for development paths that permit decoupling of economic growth from environmental degradation.

Today’s heightened interest in the proper role of businesses in society has been promoted by increased sensitivity to environmental and ethical issues. In some countries government regulation of environmental and social issues has increased, and standards and laws are also often set at a supranational level (e.g. by the European Union).

It is important to distinguish CSR from charitable donations and «good works». Corporations have often spent money on community projects, the endowment of scholarships, and the establishment of foundations. They have also encouraged their employees to take part in community work thus enhancing the reputation of the company and strengthening its brand.

CSR goes beyond charity and requires that a responsible company will take into account the impact on all stakeholders and on the environment when making decisions. This holistic approach to business regards organizations as being full partners in their communities, rather than being primarily in business to make profits and serve the needs of their shareholders.

CSR reporting

The application of Sustainable Development principles through the introduction of a CSR policy is often accompanied by what is called triple bottom line reporting which declares that it is necessary to account for not only financial results, but also for the social and environmental impact of the business, i.e. focus not only on Profit, but on People and Planet aspects as well. Some countries (e.g. France) have made such reporting mandatory. However the measurement of social and environmental performance is difficult and new measurement techniques need to be developed.

Advocacy for triple bottom line reforms is popular in Green Parties and in the United Nations circles.

While many people agree with the importance of social and environmental goals, there are also many who disagree with the ‘Triple Bottom Line’ as the way to achieve these goals. The main arguments against it may be summarized as:

Division of labor, which is characteristic of rich societies and a major contributor to their wealth, ensures that organizations contribute most to the welfare of society when they focus on what they do best. Business’s expertise is in satisfying the needs of society and generating a value-added surplus. Thus the ‘triple bottom line’ is diverting business attention away from its core competency. Just as charitable organizations like the Salvation Army would not be expected to pay a cash dividend, business should not be expected to take on concerns outside its core expertise.

Effectiveness. Concern for social and environmental matters is rare in poor societies (a hungry person would rather eat the whale than photograph it). As a society becomes richer its citizens develop an increasing desire for a clean environment and protected wildlife, and both the willingness and financial ability to contribute to this. The ‘Triple Bottom Line’ is said to be an example of the choices available to the citizens of a society made wealthy by businesses attending to business. Thus, Adam Smith’s Invisible Hand will ensure that business contributes most effectively to the improvement of all areas of society.

Nationalism. Some countries adopt a nationalistic approach with the view that they must look after their own citizens first.

Inertia. The difficulty of achieving global agreement on simultaneous policy may render such measures at best advisory. People would be unwilling to undergo a depression or recession in order to remediate lost ecosystems.

Many large companies now produce annual reports that cover Sustainable Development and CSR issues, and these reports are often externally audited. But there is no common template for the reporting and the evaluation methodology varies between companies. Critics often comment that some of these reports are just an ad and as an example note that Enron published a glossy «Corporate Responsibility Annual Report» and that tobacco corporations such as BAT also produce social reports.

The Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) is an attempt to standardize sustainability reporting and the AA1000 standard is an attempt to improve their legitimacy.

Criticism of CSR

Some critics of CSR, such as Milton Friedman, argue that a corporation’s principal purpose is to maximize returns to its shareholders, whilst obeying the laws of the countries within which it works. Others argue that the only reason corporations put in place social projects is utilitarian; that they see a commercial benefit in raising their reputation with the public or with government.

It is clear that a CSR activity generally can only be effective at achieving social or environmental outcomes to the extent that it maximizes profits: hence the CSR slogan – «doing well by doing good». This requires that the resources applied to CSR activities must generate a higher return than those resources could obtain if applied anywhere else, e.g. capital investment, lobbying for tax relief, outsourcing, fighting against unionization, or taking market risks.

Some argue that it is self-evidently «good» that businesses should seek to minimize any negative social and environmental impact of their economic activity. It can be beneficial for a company’s reputation to publicize any environmentally friendly business activities. A company which develops new engine technology to reduce fuel consumption will be able to promote its CSR credentials as well as increase profits.

A conflict can arise when a corporation espouses CSR and its commitment to Sustainable Development on the one hand, whilst damaging revelations about its business practices emerge on the other. The McDonald’s Corporation has been criticized by CSR campaigners for unethical business practices, including mistreatment of workers, misleading advertising, and unnecessary cruelty to animals. Similarly Shell has a much-publicized CSR policy and was a pioneer in triple bottom line reporting, but was involved in 2004 in a scandal over the misreporting of its oil reserves, which seriously damaged its reputation and led to charges of hypocrisy.

Source: Wikipedia.

People, Planet, Profit: The Value of CSR

CSR, also referred to as corporate stewardship or corporate citizenship, has become increasingly important to companies competing in today’s business climate. Companies focusing on the ideals of People, Planet, and Profit further bolster the notion that addressing social and environmental issues supports the attainment of financial goals and can be critical to long-term corporate success.

But the biggest question surrounding CSR is not «Is this the right thing to do?» but a more in-depth, «Why should we do this?» Profitable business and CSR are not mutually exclusive. There are many solid reasons as to why CSR is good business.

Branding

The market has become oversaturated with company messages touting the newest, hottest, or cheapest. This has lessened the effectiveness of traditional marketing efforts and jaded the audiences they are aimed at. Relationship and cause marketing are two avenues in which companies can realize the value of their brand, build good will, and establish lasting impressions with their stakeholders. Brands like Avon, The Body Shop, Timberland, and Target have made their social commitments a fundamental component of their corporate mission, and reputation. This attitude is reflected in their marketing efforts and has resulted in a stronger brand reputation, and increased revenues. People want to align themselves with companies they admire and respect.

Conversely, companies that have tarnished their brands by not acting responsibly in regard to their stakeholders have discovered that ignoring social responsibility has irreparably damaged their brand image as well as their bottom line. Enron and WorldCom are two highly publicized examples of companies who put profitability ahead of responsibility. The glare of the media is aimed directly at corporations nowadays; any small glitch in a company’s reputation could dramatically impact their revenues both long– and short-term.

Socially Responsible Investment Institutions

Socially responsible investment funds (SRIs) offer perhaps the most direct financial link to CSR. The influence of SRIs internationally can be seen in the hundreds of funds, the number of shareholder resolutions filed, and the financial performance of companies associated with SRIs.

Globally, this group of funds has tremendous financial leverage. While each fund offers a unique perspective, common themes include their CSR criteria used for company selection and evaluation. Equally, companies not meeting a minimum threshold of social performance are those typically targeted for shareholder resolutions.

Building a business case for CSR is strengthened by the performance of SRI-based companies. The Dow Jones Sustainability Index (DJSI) has historically tracked the performance of companies with active CSR initiatives, measuring them against companies not aligned with CSR principles. Companies with CSR programs have consistently outperformed those without CSR over the past five years.

Legislation and Litigation

Generally, a company’s actions are governed by its adherence to laws and compliance with business regulations. Historically, it has been assumed that corporate leaders are guided by their own moral compass; values and ethics influence decisions and legislation is not required to govern morality and behavior. However, certain corporations have sullied the reputation of business in general. As a result, recently we have seen a rise in legislation, fines, and litigation surrounding corporate responsibility. To be in compliance with current laws, avoid penalties and litigation, adopting a philosophy of CSR makes good business sense.

Avoidance of litigation is another motivator for companies to adopt socially responsible practices. Increasingly, activist and non-governmental organization groups are using litigation in an attempt to change corporate behavior. Previously, efforts by these groups included shaming a company to change behavior through adverse media and filing shareholder resolutions to demand change. These same groups are now filing lawsuits in their attempts to force companies to embrace socially responsible practices.

Employees and Customers

Employee recruitment, retention, and morale are strong business reasons for corporations to integrate CSR into their organizations. Research studies that evaluate the impact that CSR has on employee recruitment and retention offer the following data.

Companies demonstrating strong CSR commitments find it easier to recruit employees, particularly in tight labor markets.

A 1997 study of 2,100 MBA students found that more than half said they would accept a lower salary to work for a socially responsible company.

CSR efforts strengthen a company’s position as an employer of choice.

Morale, motivation, innovation, productivity and creativity are all improved by providing the opportunity for people to work for organizations that not only support their career but also provide for much deeper meaning in their life.

Integrity at work relates to employee loyalty. 40% of employees who say their senior leaders have high personal integrity are also truly loyal to their organization. That number drops to only 6% when employees do not believe their senior leaders have integrity.

Also, numerous studies have shown that there is a direct correlation between CSR and the ability to attract and retain customers. Customer choice has traditionally been driven by price, quality, appearance, safety, convenience, and accessibility. However, increasingly other value-based criteria are influencing purchasing decisions.

Product Improvement / Cost Reduction

Lower recruiting costs, larger market share, fewer regulatory fines, waste reduction, cost savings through recycling, and increased stock price and shareholder value are all tangible metrics for CSR.

Studies also suggest that reduced regulatory costs, and customer complaints are additional financial benefits realized after the implementation of a CSR program. However, there is research that supports a more direct cost/benefit analysis of CSR efforts. Intel provides a good case study of specifically measuring and quantifying their CSR improvement and associated financial benefit.

Intel has a system of assessments and audits that yields hard data regarding the social and environmental performance of its suppliers. This data allows Intel to better manage its supply chain by enabling the suppliers to become part of the company’s continuous improvement process. This process of assessing and auditing its supply chain has been integral in drawing a correlation between Intel’s CSR efforts and their business implications.

Source: www.eorm.com

Essential Vocabulary

1. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) – социальная ответственность корпораций

2. obligation n – обязательство, обязанность, долг

oblige v – обязывать, принуждать; делать одолжение

3. sensitivity n – чувствительность

sensitive a – чувствительный

4. sustainable a – устойчивый

5. supranational a – наднациональный

6. charity n – благотворительность

charitable a – благотворительный

7. endowment n – вклад, дар, пожертвование; (дарственный) фонд; дарование

endow v – обеспечивать постоянным доходом, наделять, одаривать, делать дар

8. foundation n – закладка (фундамента), фундамент, основание; обоснование, основа; фонд, пожертвованный на культурное начинание; учреждение или организация, существующая на пожертвованный фонд

9.triple bottom-line – тройная итоговая строка

10. advocacy n – защита, адвокатура; пропаганда

advocate n – адвокат, защитник, заступник, сторонник

advocate v – отстаивать, защищать, выступать в защиту, пропагандировать

11. division of labor – разделение труда

12.welfare n – благосостояние, благоденствие, благополучие; благотворительность

13. remediation n – исправление, лечение, восстановление

remedial a – исправительный; лечебный; ремонтный; являющийся средством судебной защиты

14. template n – шаблон, лекало, калибр

15. Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) – глобальная инициатива по отчетности

16.ad (advertisement) – реклама (амер. жаргон)

17. legitimacy n – законность; закономерность; законнорожденность

legitimate a – законный; допустимый; оправданный; законнорожденный

18. tax relief – налоговая скидка, освобождение от уплаты

19. union n – союз, профсоюз

unionization n – охват профсоюзом, объединение в профсоюз

unionize v – охватывать профсоюзом, объединять в профсоюз

20. environmentally friendly – экологически дружественный (безопасный)

21. credential n – мандат, удостоверение личности; рекомендация, (мн.) верительные грамоты

22. stewardship n – управление, распоряжение

steward n – управляющий, распорядитель; стюард

23. corporate citizenship – социально ответственное поведение корпораций

corporate citizen – социально ответственная корпорация

24. branding n – брендинг

25. socially responsible investments (SRI) – социально ответственные инвестиции

26. resolution n – выражение желания или намерения что-то сделать; резолюция или решение; разрешение спора

27.threshold n – порог

threshold a – пороговый

28. Dow Jones Sustainability Index (DJSI) – индекс устойчивости Dow Jones

29.fine n – штраф, пеня; тонкий; точный; первоклассный

fine v – взимать штраф, налагать штраф

30. litigation n – судебный процесс, судебное дело, тяжба

litigant n – истец или ответчик в судебном процессе

litigate v – судиться, оспаривать на суде

31. non-governmental organization (NGO) – неправительственная организация

32. morale n – моральное состояние, боевой дух

33. recycling n – рециклирование

recycle v – рециклировать

34. cost/benefit analysis – анализ издержек и прибыли

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. What does CSR mean? 2. What is the generally accepted definition of sustainable development and what does it entail in practice? 3. What is the difference between CSR and charity? 4. What is the triple bottom line reporting? 5. What are the key arguments against the triple bottom line reporting? 6. What are the views of CSR critics? 7. What kind of conflict can arise with respect to companies that proclaim their commitment to CSR? 8. What do advocates of CSR say and what are their arguments in favor of this concept? 9. Does it pay to be a good corporate citizen? 10. What do you think is the proper role of business in society?

Exercise 2*. Find terms in the text that match definitions given below and make sentences of your own with each term.

1. anything imposing a moral or legal duty; an agreement that may be enforced by law

2. pertaining to work or operations of a highly delicate, secretive, or precarious nature

3. outside the authority of any one nation or national government

4. the private or public relief of the poor

5. a state or condition of well-being, as of health, happiness or prosperity

6. the proceedings in a suit at law

7. payment exacted as punishment for an offense

8. mental attitude expressing courage, zeal, hope or confidence

Exercise 3. You are a journalist writing for The Economist, and your assignment is to interview BP’s HSE (Health, Safety and Environment) vice president on environmental objectives of the company. Make a dialogue between these two individuals using the following briefing materials.

BP Towards Sustainable Future

Minimizing Emissions

BP’s recognition of the need for precautionary action over climate change led to a program of action in which we set and met a target to lower our own emissions (выбросы) of greenhouse gases (парниковых газов) by 10% from the 1990 level. We have now set a new target – to maintain emissions at or below that level up to 2012, despite growth in production of energy.

The emission reduction program showed that economic benefits can accompany environmental ones. Overall, rather than damaging BP’s business, the four year program created over half a billion dollars of value in fuel saved. For example, the Texas City Refinery (НПЗ) reduced emissions by 300,000 tons of carbon dioxide equivalent in emissions and also saved $5 million.

Another way that BP has addressed the need to take precautionary action was to reduce flaring (сжигание газа в факелах) by 34%. The energy industry collectively flares almost 10bn cubic ft of gas a day – as much as is used by France, Belgium and the Netherlands together. BP has joined a partnership established by World Bank to cut flaring, along with partners including the Norwegian Government, Sonatrach and Royal Dutch/Shell.

BP has also reduced the environmental impact of the products it sells. Within the next 3 years we plan that half of our retail sales worldwide will be of cleaner fuels. These are designed to enable motorists to reduce the emissions from their vehicles and have been particularly targeted at cities where air quality problems are most acute. Already cleaner fuels are available at over 100 cities worldwide.

Leading in Renewables

Renewable (возобновляемые) energy sources hold out the promise of fuel with very low environmental impact. Although commercially viable in some situations today, these sources are generally too expensive to compete with oil and gas in the major energy markets. However, BP is committed to building a substantial renewable and alternative energy business focusing on solar, wind and hydrogen.

BP is a global solar leader, accounting for 20% of the world market for solar energy. BP Solar provides products to help our customers use cleaner energy in 160 countries. We use our own products to provide renewable energy at service stations, plants and offices.

Hydrogen has the potential to revolutionize energy for transportation. BP is already a major producer of hydrogen for industrial use, and we are taking part in R&D projects around the world to help overcome barriers to the introduction of hydrogen as a fuel for motor vehicles.

Source: www.bpamoco.org

Exercise 4*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

Shell’s Business Principles

Principle 2 – Responsibilities to Society and Employees

We continue to make a substantial……. to local economies in over 135 countries where we have an interest in……… through……… and the use of local contractors and suppliers.

Shell companies employ some 90,000 people the majority of which are local……. The number of employees has fallen at all levels of the Group since last year due to transfer of labor to other organizations and…….. exercises started in 1999.

In 50 countries Shell companies have a policy to promote…….. – the use of local contractors and suppliers. In 106 countries Shell companies spend more than 50% of total……… on goods and services inside that country.

Shell companies in 130 countries compare……… levels to ensure they are competitive. No member of staff receives less than the…….. wage. The lowest wage paid to a Shell company employee in 2000 was $50 per month plus $20 transport……. in a country in Africa where the national minimum is $25 per month.

Principle 4 – Business Integrity

We have a Group-wide policy and target of no……. ……. is a global problem that can occur at any level but in some countries the payment of bribes and……. payments to low-level government officials is common practice – putting managers under continuous pressure. The primer «Dealing with Bribes and Corruption» helps managers maintain the highest standards of……

In 2000, Shell companies reported four instances in which seven employees were detected……../accepting bribes. All seven employees were……..

There was one case in which a bribe was solicited by a third party offering to secure a Shell company a favorable place in the….. for a license. The offer was refused.

Principle 5 – Political Activities

We have a policy and…….. of no political payments. Shell companies in 117 countries operate a procedure to prevent and identify possible……… of the policy. In 2000, there was one case where a Shell company detected a political payment made on its……. through a marketing organization of which the company is a member. An official public…….. was made.

Principle 6 – Health, Safety and Environment

Climate change remains one of the most important……. issues of our time. We are acting to reduce our own………. and supporting our customers, partners and suppliers to reduce theirs. We strive to continuously reduce negative environmental……… across our operations. Over 90% of our major…….. have achieved ISO 14001………..

We deeply regret that in 2000 60 people (55 contractors and five Shell employees) lost their lives during work activity compared with 47 in 1999. This is unacceptable and we continue to promote local and global initiatives to address the……….. issues. As last year, the majority of deaths occurred in road accidents in……. countries where driving conditions are particularly difficult.

Principle 8 – Competition

Shell companies seek to compete fairly and ethically within the framework of applicable……… laws. In 95 countries Shell companies operate a…….. to ensure their operations do not……. such laws. In 71 countries employees receive…….. to help them understand applicable competition laws.

In 2000, nine competition cases involving Shell companies were……. In two cases, the Shell company was found…….. In both, Shell companies were judged to have…….. competition law by being part of price-fixing……. resulting in……. of $11,000 and $17 million.

A……. commission ordered eight wholesalers, including a non-Shell operated joint venture, to pay some $17 million for rigging……. in the supply of oil products to the…….. industry. This is being…….

Source: 2000 Shell Report (excerpts)

Terms:

defense, fines, contested, developing and emerging, bids, facilitation, installations, target, statutory, emissions, behalf, fair trading, environmental, bribes, competition, allowance, contribution, operations, bidding, guilty, employment, staff, downsizing, local content, infringed, expenditures, remuneration, corruption, integrity, soliciting, dismissed, breaches, complaint, procedure, impacts, certification, occupational safety, corruption, completed, cartels, training, violate

Exercise 5. Translate into English.

Политика ОАО «ЛУКОЙЛ» в области промышленной безопасности, охраны труда и окружающей среды в XXI веке

Стратегическая цель ОАО «Лукойл» в ХХI веке – обеспечить устойчивое развитие и стать одной из ведущих нефтяных компаний мира. Достижение поставленной цели осуществляется сбалансированным решением социально-экономических задач и проблем сохранения благоприятной окружающей среды.

Приоритетными задачами ОАО «Лукойл» являются обеспечение безопасных условий труда работников, защита здоровья персонала Группы «Лукойл» и населения, проживающего в районах деятельности организаций Группы «Лукойл», а также сохранение благоприятной окружающей природной среды.

Для этого в компании созданы и успешно функционируют системы управления промышленной и экологической безопасностью, охраной труда. Они построены в полном соответствии с действующим российским законодательством, на основе лучшей отечественной и зарубежной практики и прошли сертификацию на соответствие требованиям международного стандарта ISO 14001 и стандарта OHSAS 18001.

Политика ОАО «Лукойл» разработана и принята в полном соответствии со стратегией государства в области промышленной и экологической безопасности и рационального использования природных ресурсов.

Политика ОАО «Лукойл» в области промышленной безопасности, охраны труда и окружающей среды устанавливает на ближайшие пять лет следующие цели:

– постоянное улучшение состояния промышленной безопасности, охраны труда, окружающей среды и обеспечение контроля за выполнением этих обязательств;

– рациональное использование природных ресурсов как вовлекаемых в производство, так и находящихся в регионах деятельности организаций Группы «Лукойл»;

– достижение уровня промышленной и экологической безопасности, соответствующего современному состоянию развития науки, техники и общества;

– повышение промышленной и экологической безопасности производственных объектов компании, снижение негативного воздействия на окружающую среду за счет повышения надежности технологического оборудования, обеспечения его безопасной и безаварийной работы;

– создание в ОАО «Лукойл» эффективных процедур подготовки и реализации программ в области промышленной безопасности, охраны труда и охраны окружающей среды, обеспечивающих постоянное выявление и решение наиболее важных задач промышленной и экологической безопасности, возникающих перед компанией;

– стабилизация и последующее сокращение количества, а также снижение токсичности выбросов, сбросов загрязняющих веществ и отходов при увеличении объемов производства за счет внедрения новых прогрессивных технологий, оборудования, материалов и повышения уровня автоматизации управления технологическими процессами;

– снижение техногенной нагрузки на окружающую среду от вновь вводимых объектов посредством улучшения качества подготовки предпроектной и проектной документации и проведения ее экологической экспертизы и экспертизы промышленной безопасности в ОАО «Лукойл»;

– повышение эффективности производственного контроля за соблюдением требований промышленной безопасности и экологического мониторинга на объектах компании на основе внедрения современных информационных технологий, методов технической диагностики и дистанционного зондирования (remote sensing).

Источник: www.lukoil.ru

Lesson 17
Industry Analysis

Read and translate the text and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary

Porter’s Five Forces

The model of pure competition implies that risk-adjusted rates of return should be constant across firms and industries. However, different industries can sustain different levels of profitability, partly because of industry structure. Michael Porter provided a framework that models an industry as being influenced by five forces. The strategic business manager seeking to develop an edge over rival firms can use this model to better understand the industry context in which the firm operates.

Porter’s 5 Forces

I. Rivalry

In the traditional economic model, competition among rival firms drives profits to zero. But competition is not perfect and firms are not unsophisticated passive price takers. They strive for a competitive advantage over their rivals.

Economists measure rivalry by indicators of industry concentration. The Concentration Ratio (CR) is one such measure. The Bureau of Census periodically reports the CR for major Standard Industrial Classifications (SIC). The CR indicates the percent of market share held by the four largest firms. A high concentration ratio indicates that the industry is concentrated. With only a few firms holding a large market share, the competitive landscape is closer to a monopoly. A low concentration ratio indicates that the industry is characterized by many rivals, none of which has a significant market share. These fragmented markets are competitive.

If rivalry among firms in an industry is low, the industry is considered to be disciplined. This discipline may result from the industry’s history of competition, the role of a leading firm, or informal compliance with a generally understood code of conduct. Explicit collusion generally is illegal; in low-rivalry industries competitive moves must be constrained informally. However, a maverick firm seeking a competitive advantage can displace the otherwise disciplined market.

When a rival acts in a way that elicits a counter-response by other firms, rivalry intensifies. The intensity of competition is referred to as being cutthroat, intense, moderate, or weak, based on the firms’ aggressiveness in gaining an advantage.

A firm can choose from several competitive moves:

– Price competition.

– Improving product differentiation.

– Creatively using channels of distribution, such as vertical integration.

– Exploiting relationships with suppliers.

The intensity of rivalry is influenced by the following industry characteristics:

– A larger number of firms increases rivalry because more firms must compete for the same customers and resources. The rivalry intensifies if the firms have similar market share, leading to a struggle for market leadership.

– Slow market growth causes firms to fight for market share. In a growing market, firms are able to improve revenues simply because of the expanding market.

– High fixed costs result in an economy of scale that increases rivalry. When total costs are mostly fixed costs, the firm must produce near capacity to attain the lowest unit costs. Since the firm must sell this large quantity of product, high levels of production lead to a fight for market share and result in increased rivalry. High storage costs cause a producer to sell goods as soon as possible. If other producers are attempting to unload at the same time, competition for customers intensifies.

– Low switching costs increase rivalry. When a customer can freely switch from one product to another there is a greater struggle to capture customers.

– Low levels of product differentiation are associated with higher levels of rivalry. Brand identification, on the other hand, tends to constrain rivalry.

– Strategic stakes are high when a firm is losing market position or has potential for great gains. This intensifies rivalry.

– High exit barriers place a high cost on abandoning the product. High exit barriers cause a firm to remain in an industry, even when the venture is not profitable.

– When the plant and equipment required for manufacturing a product are highly specialized, these assets cannot easily be sold to other buyers in another industry.

– A diversity of rivals with different cultures, and philosophies makes an industry unstable. There is greater possibility for mavericks and for misjudging rival’s moves.

– A growing market and the potential for high profits induce new firms to enter a market and incumbent firms to increase production. A point is reached where the industry becomes crowded with competitors, and demand cannot support the new entrants and the resulting increased supply. A shakeout ensues, with intense competition, price wars, and company failures.

– BCG founder Bruce Henderson generalized this observation as the Rule of Three and Four: a stable market will not have more than three significant competitors, and the largest competitor will have no more than four times the market share of the smallest. It implies that:

– If there is a larger number of competitors, a shakeout is inevitable.

– Surviving rivals will have to grow faster than the market.

– Eventual losers will have a negative cash flow if they attempt to grow.

– All except the two largest rivals will be losers.

II. Threat of Substitutes

In Porter’s model, substitute products refer to products in other industries. A threat of substitutes exists when a product’s demand is affected by the price change of a substitute product. A product’s price elasticity is affected by substitute products – as more substitutes become available, the demand becomes more elastic since customers have more alternatives. A close substitute product constrains the ability of firms in an industry to raise prices. The competition engendered by a Threat of Substitutes comes from products outside the industry.

III. Buyer Power

The power of buyers is the impact that customers have on a producing industry.

When buyer power is strong, the relationship to the producing industry is near to a monopsony – a market in which there are many suppliers and one buyer. Under such market conditions, the buyer sets the price. In reality few pure monopsonies exist, but frequently there is some asymmetry between a producing industry and buyers.

IV. Supplier Power

A producing industry requires raw materials – labor, components, and other supplies. This requirement leads to buyer-supplier relationships between the industry and the firms that provide it the raw materials used to create products. Suppliers, if powerful, can exert an influence on the producing industry, such as selling raw materials at a high price to capture some of the industry’s profits.

V. Barriers to Entry / Threat of Entry

It is not only incumbent rivals that pose a threat to firms in an industry; the possibility that new firms may enter the industry also affects competition. In theory, any firm should be able to enter and exit a market, and if free entry and exit exists, then profits always should be nominal. In reality, however, industries possess characteristics that protect the high profit levels of firms in the market and inhibit additional rivals from entering the market. These are barriers to entry.

Barriers to entry are more than the normal equilibrium adjustments that markets typically make. When industry profits increase, we would expect additional firms to enter the market to take advantage of the high profit levels, over time driving down profits for all firms in the industry. When profits decrease, we would expect some firms to exit the market thus restoring a market equilibrium. Falling prices deter rivals from entering a market. Firms also may be reluctant to enter highly uncertain markets, especially if entering involves expensive start-up costs. If firms individually keep prices artificially low as a strategy to prevent potential entrants from entering the market, such entry-deterring pricing establishes a barrier.

Barriers to entry reduce the rate of entry of new firms, thus maintaining a level of profits for those already in the industry. Barriers to entry arise from several sources:

– Government creates barriers.

– Patents and proprietary knowledge serve to restrict entry into an industry.

– Asset specificity inhibits entry into an industry.

– Organizational (Internal) Economies of Scale. The most cost efficient level of production is termed Minimum Efficient Scale (MES). This is the point at which unit costs for production are at minimum.

Barriers to exit work similarly to barriers to entry. Exit barriers limit the ability of a firm to leave the market and can exacerbate rivalry – unable to leave the industry, a firm must compete.

Source: www.quickmba.com

Essential Vocabulary

1. pure competition – совершенная конкуренция

2. risk-adjusted – скорректированный на риск

3. rate of return – ставка доходности

4. learning curve – кривая освоения

5. switching costs – издержки переключения

6.forward integration – прямая интеграция

7. backward integration – обратная интеграция

8. bargain n – сделка или операция; договоренность; выгодная покупка

bargaining n – ведение переговоров

bargain v – торговаться, вести переговоры, договариваться, уславливаться

9. rival n – соперник, конкурент

rivalry n – соперничество, конкуренция

rival a – соперничающий, конкурирующий

rival v – соперничать, конкурировать

10.perfect competition – совершенная конкуренция

11. Concentration Ratio (CR) – показатель концентрации

12. Bureau of Census – Бюро переписей (Министерства торговли США)

13. Standard Industry Classification (SIC) – стандартная промышленная классификация

14. code of conduct – кодекс поведения

15. maverick n – диссидент, отступник; резко отклоняющееся значение (на графике)

16. cutthroat competition – ожесточенная конкуренция, конкуренция на удушение

17. vertical integration – вертикальная интеграция

18. unit cost – себестоимость единицы продукции

19. storage n – хранение, складирование; хранилище, площадь склада

store n – магазин, хранилище, склад, запас

store v – хранить, складировать

20. shakeout n – встряска (существенное изменение в рыночных условиях)

21. entrant n – компания, выходящая на рынок или проникающая в отрасль

22. price elasticity – эластичность по ценам

23. monopsony n – монопсония (монополия покупателей)

monopsonic a – монопсонический

24. entry barriers (barriers to entry) – барьеры к выходу на рынок

25. exit barriers (barriers to exit) – барьеры к уходу с рынка

26. market equilibrium – рыночное равновесие

27. start-up costs – начальные затраты

28. Minimum Efficient Scale (MES) – минимальный эффективный уровень

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. What forces influencing the industry did Michael Porter identify? 2. How do economists measure rivalry in an industry? 3. What competitive strategies can a firm adopt to gain an advantage over its rivals? 4. What are the determinants of the intensity of rivalry? 5. How did Michael Porter define the threat of substitutes? 6. What is the power of buyers? 7. How can suppliers exert their influence? 8. What are the entry and exit barriers?

Exercise 2*. Find at least 9 adjectives in the text to the term «competition» and make sentences of your own using them.

Exercise 3. Fill in the following table using Russian industries as examples and briefly describe key characteristics of these industries.

Exercise 4*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

Porter’s Generic Strategies

If the primary determinant of a firm’s……. is the……. of the industry in which it operates, an important secondary determinant is its position within that industry. Even though an industry may have below-average profitability, a firm that is optimally……. can generate……. returns.

A firm positions itself by……. its strengths. Michael Porter has argued that a firm’s strengths ultimately fall into one of two headings: cost advantage and differentiation. By applying these strengths, three……. strategies result: cost leadership, differentiation, and focus. These strategies are applied at the……. level.

Cost Leadership Strategy

This generic strategy calls for being the…….. producer in an industry for a given level of quality. The firm sells its products either at average industry prices to earn a……. higher than that of……., or below the…… industry prices to gain market share. In the event of a……., the firm can maintain some profitability while the competition suffers losses. Also, as the industry…….. and prices decline, the firms that can produce more cheaply will remain profitable for a longer period of time. Firms acquire……… by improving process……., gaining unique access to a large source of lower cost materials, making optimal outsourcing and vertical integration decisions, or avoiding some costs altogether. If competitors are unable to lower their costs by a similar amount, the firm may be able to…….. a competitive advantage based on cost leadership.

Each generic strategy has its risks, including the low-cost strategy. For example, as technology……… the competition may be able to…… the production capabilities, thus eliminating the competitive advantage. Additionally, several firms following a focus strategy and…….. various narrow markets may be able to achieve an even lower cost within their………. and as a group gain significant market share.

Differentiation Strategy

A differentiation strategy calls for the development of a product or service that offers unique……. that are valued by……. The……. by the uniqueness of the product may allow the firm to charge a…… price for it. The firm hopes that the higher price will more than cover the extra costs……. in offering the unique product. Because of the product’s unique attributes, if…….. increase their prices the firm may be able to…….. the costs to its customers who cannot find……… products easily.

The risks associated with a differentiation strategy include…….. by competitors and changes in customer tastes. Additionally, various firms…….. focus strategies may be able to achieve even greater differentiation in their market segments.

Focus Strategy

The focus strategy concentrates on a……. segment and within that segment attempts to achieve either a cost advantage or differentiation. A firm using a focus strategy often enjoys a high degree of customer………, and this discourages other firms from competing directly.

Because of their narrow market focus, firms pursuing a focus strategy have lower volumes and therefore less……… power with their suppliers. Some risks of focus strategies include imitation and changes in the……. segments. Furthermore, it may be fairly easy for a……… cost leader to adapt its product in order to compete directly. Finally, other focusers may be able to carve out……. that they can serve even better.

A Combination of Generic Strategies

These generic strategies are not necessarily……. with one another. If a firm…….. to achieve an across-the-board advantage, in this attempt it may achieve no advantage at all. Michael Porter argued that to be successful over the………, a firm must select only one of these three generic strategies. Otherwise, with more than one single generic strategy the firm will be……… and will not achieve a competitive advantage.

Source: www.quickmba.com

Terms:

pass along, suppliers, imitation, broad-market, narrow, «stuck in the middle», customers, long term, premium, value added, profitability, matures, sustain, loyalty, leapfrog, sub-segment, compatible, profit, attractiveness, positioned, superior, leveraging, generic, business unit, low cost, rivals, average, price war, cost advantage, efficiencies, improves, targeting, segments, attributes, incurred, substitute, pursuing, target, attempts, bargaining

Exercise 5. Translate into English.

Предпосылки реформирования электроэнергетики России

Еще в 1980-х годах в электроэнергетике страны стали проявляться признаки стагнации: производственные мощности обновлялись заметно медленнее, чем росло потребление электроэнергии. В 1990-е годы, в период общеэкономического кризиса в России, объем потребления электроэнергии существенно уменьшился, в то же время процесс обновления мощностей практически остановился.

Общая ситуация в отрасли характеризовалась следующими показателями.

По технологическим показателям российские энергокомпании отставали от своих аналогов в развитых странах.

Отсутствовали стимулы к повышению эффективности, рациональному планированию режимов производства и потребления электроэнергии, энергосбережению.

В отдельных регионах происходили перебои энергоснабжения, наблюдался энергетический кризис. Существовала высокая вероятность крупных аварий.

Отсутствовала платежная дисциплина, были распространены неплатежи.

Предприятия отрасли были информационно и финансово не прозрачными.

Доступ на рынок был закрыт для новых, независимых игроков.

Все это вызвало необходимость преобразований в электроэнергетике, которые создали бы стимулы для повышения эффективности энергокомпаний и позволили существенно увеличить объем инвестиций в отрасли.

Цели и задачи реформы

Основная цель реформирования электроэнергетики России – повышение эффективности предприятий отрасли, создание условий для ее развития на основе стимулирования инвестиций, обеспечение надежного и бесперебойного энергоснабжения потребителей.

В связи с этим в электроэнергетике России происходят радикальные изменения: меняется система государственного регулирования отрасли, формируется конкурентный рынок электроэнергии, создаются новые компании.

В ходе реформы меняется структура отрасли: осуществляется разделение естественномонопольных (передача электроэнергии, оперативно-диспетчерское управление) и потенциально конкурентных (производство и сбыт электроэнергии, ремонт и сервис) функций, и вместо прежних вертикально-интегрированных компаний, выполнявших все эти функции, создаются структуры, специализирующиеся на отдельных видах деятельности.

Генерирующие, сбытовые и ремонтные компании в перспективе станут преимущественно частными и будут конкурировать друг с другом. В естественно-монопольных сферах, напротив, происходит усиление государственного контроля.

Таким образом, создаются условия для развития конкурентного рынка электроэнергии, цены которого не регулируются государством, а формируются на основе спроса и предложения, а его участники конкурируют, снижая свои издержки.

Целевая структура отрасли

Формируемые в ходе реформы компании представляют собой предприятия, специализированные на определенных видах деятельности (генерация, передача электроэнергии и другие) и контролирующие соответствующие профильные активы. По масштабу профильной деятельности создаваемые компании превосходят прежние монополии регионального уровня: новые компании объединяют профильные предприятия нескольких регионов либо являются общероссийскими.

Так, магистральные сети переходят под контроль Федеральной сетевой компании, распределительные сети предполагается интегрировать в межрегиональные распределительные сетевые компании (МРСК), функции и активы региональных диспетчерских управлений передаются общероссийскому Системному оператору. Активы генерации также объединяются в межрегиональные компании, причем двух видов: генерирующие компании оптового рынка и территориальные генерирующие компании.

Таким образом, в ходе реформы исчезает прежняя, монопольная структура электроэнергетики: большинство вертикально-интегрированных компаний сходят со сцены, на смену им появляются новые компании целевой структуры отрасли. Почти все они уже учреждены, однако требуется время для завершения процесса их формирования, в ходе которого каждая компания приобретет целевую конфигурацию.

Источник: www.rao-ees.ru

Lesson 18
Industry Trends

Read and translate the text and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

Global Consolidation Threat: Can East European Companies Survive?

The East European oil and gas market faces the risk of being completely dominated by foreign companies. Industry leaders like BP or Royal Dutch/Shell enter the market aggressively and are able to undertake significant financial investments. Their entry strategies significantly differ: while Royal Dutch/Shell focus their investments on E&P (targeting a major stake in Gazprom), BP also intensifies its downstream presence by creating a JV with TNK. The Polish or Hungarian markets have already been strongly penetrated by global industry leaders. Former state-owned national oil and gas companies have been attacked by local consolidation on the one hand and acquisition by global majors on the other hand. Only some of them have been able to keep their local downstream dominance, i.e. Polish Orlen and Hungarian MOL. To strengthen their local market leadership both are actively internationalizing their business by forming regional leaders in Central and Eastern Europe. Latest attempts have been seen of Orlen targeting the take-over of its domestic competitor Grupa Lotos and rumours already circulate about a merger of Orlen and MOL.

«Achieve market leadership from the black forest (Schwarzwald) to the Black Sea,» Austrian market leader, OMV, has further focused its market strategy. The future expansion of OMV’s downstream presence should especially target Eastern Europe. OMV could become a major catalyst of the East European market consolidation.

But what should be the strategy of East European oil and gas companies to stay in or enter the global premier league? A.T. Kearney study reveals that consolidation trends follow a distinct logic. East European oil and gas companies need to understand in which stage of the consolidation lifecycle they are positioned to survive the consolidation threat and even dominate the endgame.

Understanding the Consolidation Curve

Economically, it makes common sense that most new industries are fragmented and consolidate as they mature. But what about the fact that all industries have similar lifecycles as indicated by A.T. Kearney study of more than 29,000 listed companies over the recent 14 years? Once an industry forms or is deregulated, it will move through four stages of consolidation. Thus, an understanding of an industry’s position within this cycle should be the cornerstone of a company’s long-term strategic plan.

Stage 1– Opening. The first stage generally begins with a single start-up or with a monopoly just emerging from a newly deregulated or privatized industry. But this 100% industry concentration quickly drops off. Soon the combined market share of the three largest companies drops to between 30% and 10% as competitors quickly arise to create the frontier of industry consolidation. For oil and gas, the dissolution of Rockefeller’s Standard Oil monopoly in 1911 was such a trigger point as well as the privatization of the state-owned East European oil and gas companies in the 1990s.

Companies in Stage 1 should aggressively defend their first-mover advantage by building scale, creating a global footprint, and establishing entry barriers. They should focus more on revenue than on profit, working to amass market share.

Stage 2– Scale. This stage is all about building scale. Major players begin to emerge, buying up competitors and forming empires. The top three players in Stage 2 industries will own 15% to 45% of their market, as the industry consolidates rapidly. Typical Stage 2 industries include airlines, hotel chains, automotive suppliers, banks, and pharmaceuticals. Also oil and gas downstream stays in Stage 2. Due to the large number of acquisitions in this stage, companies must hone their merger-integration skills. These include learning how to carefully protect their core culture as they absorb new companies and focusing on retaining the best employees of acquired companies.

Stage 3– Focus. Companies that are in Stage 3 focus on strengthening their core business and continue to aggressively outgrow the competition. The top three industry players will now control between 45% and 70% of the market. By this time there are still generally five to twelve major players. This is a period of mega-deals and large-scale consolidation plays and the goal is to emerge as one of a small number of global industry powerhouses with a well-defined business. Typical focus-stage industries include steel producers, automotive companies, shipbuilders and distillers – and oil and gas upstream as well as integrated oil and gas.

Companies in Stage 3 industries need to emphasize their core competencies, focus on profitability, and either shore up or part with weak business. The well-entrenched competition at this phase will attack underperformers. Recognizing start-up competitors early on allows focus-stage players to decide whether to crush them, acquire them, or simply emulate them. Stage 3 companies should also identify other major rivals that will likely survive into the next stage and avoid all-out assaults.

Stage 4– Balance and Alliance. Here the titans of industry reign, from tobacco to soft drinks and defense. The industry CR is at its peak and can even dip a bit as, at this stage, the top three companies claim as much as 70 to 90% of the market. Large companies may form alliances with their peers as growth is now more challenging. Companies do not move through Stage 4: they stay in it. Firms in these industries must defend their leading positions. They must find new ways to grow their core business in a mature industry and create a new wave of growth by spinning off new businesses. They must be alerted to the industry regulation and the danger of being lulled into complacency by their own dominance.

Global Titans about to Emerge

Looking at oil and gas, the industry seems to be at consolidation Stage 3. Major M&A activities have been experienced in the recent years. Exxon’s acquisition of Mobil (1999), BP acquiring Amoco (1998) and Arco (2000), the merger of Chevron and Texaco (2001) as well as the recent Philips Petroleum and Conoco merger are the most eye-catching events. The three major players in the oil and gas industry – ExxonMobil, Royal Dutch/Shell and BP – today own roughly 50—55% of the entire industry.

However, an even deeper study of the industry reveals that oil and gas sector is at different stages of its consolidation, depending on the major value chain segment. To analyze the oil and gas industry, three industry segments can be differentiated:

Oil and gas downstream is situated in the scale phase. For downstream players regional closeness, and fulfillment of market and customers specifics is crucial. That is why some local downstream players scale up to create regional leaders. A leading geographical position accompanied by strategic advantages or regional specialization arising from the closeness of the downstream business to its local customers is perceived by these companies as the winning strategy to withstand the increasing consolidation pressure of global majors.

Orlen or MOL are good examples for downstream-driven companies in Stage 2. Orlen’s acquisition of BP’s North German retail network has to be seen in this context as well as the expected initiation of regional partnership in downstream, enabling Orlen, MOL and OMV to capture and defend a leading regional position in the mid-term.

However, future success of all three companies will depend on their ability to compete against global industry leaders. A survival of focused downstream players is more than unlikely as they mark most attractive targets for global industry leaders to further sweeten their global oil and gas portfolio.

Also for oil and gas upstream the industry is still relatively dispersed. Risk sharing in E&P as well as high investment requirements in this segment are expected to further trigger consolidation and to focus on highly attractive assets and resources. Access to strategic resources as well as financial and technical capabilities are the key prerequisites in this segment.

Gazprom has already been identified by global integrated industry leaders like Royal Dutch/Shell as one of the most attractive acquisition targets in this region. First negotiations between the Anglo-Dutch industry leader and Russian authorities are underway. The sale of major stakes in Gazprom to the external investors would further open the Russian market.

Integrated oil and gas entered Stage 3 of the consolidation curve. In this segment, the titans of the industry emerge. Only few East European companies like YukosSibneft or LUKOIL are expected to compete on equal terms. Here, the consolidation is not so much a question of mega-mergers as the selective exchange of business units. However, being successful in the past does not mean to be on the winning side for the future. The East European market leaders are already identified as preferred targets for some global industry leaders.

Consolidation Strategy

To grow companies and thus raise the companies’ stock value, A.T. Kearney has developed the Value Building Growth method. Central levers of this method are revenue growth and value increase. They form a matrix with four quadrants in which companies of a sector can be positioned according to their stock market performance.

The position within the matrix gives a rough orientation of the relative competitiveness of a company and the strategic and operational improvement requirements. Accordingly, the position in the matrix gives four major thrusts.

Simple Growers face the question as to further focus core activities and competencies and develop them above average. The goal of Profit Seekers is to build on realized profits. Underperformers have to undergo a substantial process and organizational restructuring and portfolio optimization. For Value Growers the challenge is the sustainability of success and the preparation of the next step for growth.

YukosSibneft and LUKOIL are identified as Value Growers from 1997 until 2002. However, this should be seen as an honoring of both companies’ activities in the near past. For both it is now crucial to carefully evaluate their next steps in the market: compared to their global competitors both are still small players in the game.

Other East European players like Gazprom, Orlen or MOL have under-performed in terms of value and revenue growth. Restructuring their businesses and an even clearer business focus is the key message for these players.

Conclusion

To survive consolidation, East European oil and gas companies must take into account their specific positioning in the global consolidation curve. While business and portfolio restructuring as well as a consequent focus is the appropriate strategy for local players only few are in the position to compete against global industry leaders today. However, even these East European industry leaders may find themselves targeted by global majors; oil and gas is further moving towards an industry consolidation.

All companies have to quickly align the strategy to their relative industry position; otherwise they are running the risk of being taken over by industry leaders and becoming part of the oil and gas history. The urgency for East European companies to decide which future strategies they should pursue in the consolidation game is underlined by the fact that foreign companies have already defined their strategies and are on the way to implementing them.

Source: Oil and Gas Eurasia, october 2003, pp. 36—41

Essential Vocabulary

1. exploration and production (E&P) – геологоразведка и добыча (в нефтяной и газовой промышленности)

2. penetration n – проникновение

penetrate v – проникать

3. state-owned – государственный

4. consolidation n – консолидация (реинвестирование дохода, полученного от продажи акций, в менее рискованные ценные бумаги; конверсия краткосрочной задолженности в долгосрочную; укрепление рыночной конъюнктуры; объединение отчетности компаний группы)

consolidate v – консолидировать

5. major n – зд. крупная международная нефтяная компания

6. rumor n – слух; непроверенная информация, которая может повлиять на рынок

7. privatization n – приватизация

privatize v – приватизировать

8. frontier n – граница, рубеж; новая область

9. dissolution n – роспуск (компании или товарищества): юридическое прекращение деятельности компании в добровольном или принудительном порядке

dissolve v – распускать, прекращать деятельность

10. trigger n – курок, механизм; условие соглашения, невыполнение которого автоматически влечет определенные действия

trigger (off) v – приводить в движение, начинать, вызывать

11. first-mover – первопроходец

12. footprint n – след, отпечаток

13. powerhouse n – электростанция; очень энергичный человек; мощная и динамичная компания

14. emulation n – соревнование, состязание, соперничество, подражание

emulate v – соревноваться, состязаться, соперничать, подражать

15. alliance n – союз

ally n – союзник

ally (to, with) v – соединять(ся), вступать в союз

16. risk sharing – разделение риска

17.authority n – власть; орган власти; полномочие

18. restructuring n – реструктуризация (кредита или компании); пересмотр сроков выплаты долга

restructure v – реструктуризировать

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. What is the risk that the East European oil and gas companies currently face? 2. What is the policy pursued by the oil and gas majors in Eastern Europe? 3. What is the industry lifecycle according to A.T. Kearney? 4. What are the characteristics of the Opening Stage? 5. What are the main features of the Scale Stage? 6. What do companies in Stage 3 focus on? 7. Why is the Stage 4 named «Balance and Alliances»? 8. Where is the oil and gas industry located in the consolidation curve? 9. What is the essence of the Value Building Growth method developed by A.T. Kearney? 10. What are the challenges faced by Growers, Profit Seekers, Value Growers and Underperformers, respectively? 11. What Russian oil and gas companies can be included in these four categories? 12. What should East European do to survive consolidation? 13. Do you agree with the conclusions of A.T. Kearney’s experts and have their forecasts come true with respect to the Russian oil and gas sector?

Exercise 2*. Which of the following statements are not correct and why?

1. Royal Dutch/Shell focus their investments on E&P, while BP intensifies its downstream presence by creating a joint venture with TNK. 2. Global industry leaders cannot penetrate the Polish or Hungarian markets because of formidable entry barriers. 3. A.T. Kearney study reveals that consolidation trends are a matter of coincidence. 4. The opening stage generally begins with a single start-up or with a monopoly just emerging from a newly deregulated or privatized industry. 5. Companies in Stage 1 should aggressively defend their first-mover advantage by improving efficiency, creating goodwill and developing competition; they should focus more on human capital and know-how. 6. During the Scale Stage, major players begin to emerge, buying up competitors and forming empires. 7. Companies in the Focus Stage industries need to emphasize their core competencies, focus on profitability, and either shore up or part with weak business. 8. Large companies in the Balance and Alliances Stage prefer to stay independent because their potential for growth is assured. 9. No major M&A activities in the global oil and gas sector have been experienced in the recent years. 10. Central levers of the Value Building Growth method are revenue growth and value increase.

Exercise 3. Use the following terms to make sentences of your own putting them in Russian context

administrative authority – административный орган

executive authorities – исполнительная власть

federal authorities – федеральные органы власти

government authorities – правительство

judicial authorities – судебная власть

legislative authorities – законодательная власть

licensing authorities – орган по выдаче лицензий

local authorities – местные органы власти

monetary authorities – руководящие денежно-кредитные учреждения

municipal authorities – муниципальные власти

public authorities – государственная власть

regional authorities – региональные власти

regulatory authorities – регулирующие органы

tax (fiscal) authorities – налоговые органы

Exercise 4*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

Conoco and Lukoil: Everyone Wins

The U.S. oil giant gets a good price, Russia’s No. 1 oil company acquires a savvy partner, and Putin polishes Russia’s image

The price was….. Investors aren’t threatening to….. The….. isn’t in an uproar. Foreign…….. haven’t cried foul. Clearly, this was no ordinary day for Russia. The Sept. 29 sale of a 7.59%…….. in Lukoil, Russia’s largest oil company, to U.S. oil……… ConocoPhilips is indeed a first in many ways.

Conoco paid $1.98 billion for the stake, making it both the largest single……. in Russian history and the largest-ever…… by a U.S. company in Russia. It’s a sign that, despite Russia’s notorious political and legal……., the world’s biggest energy…….. are eager to get a piece of Russia’s abundant oil reserves.

Conoco…….. two other potential……, presumably representing David Guggenheim, the U.S. financier and art patron, and a company controlled by Lukoil management. But Conoco was always the clear……., its interest in Lukoil……. for months.

Great deal. What’s more, the…… clearly had strong……. from President Vladimir Putin. Concoco…… James Mulva flew to Russia to meet both Putin and Vagit Alekperov in July. «They won’t have any reason to have any second thoughts about their…….,» Putin said in early September, referring to the possibility that a large U.S. oil company – obviously Conoco – would invest in Lukoil.

Most…… are with Putin on that. «I think it’s going to be very good for both companies,» says Ron Smith, oil and gas analyst at Renaissance Capital, an investment bank in Moscow. «Conoco will get…… to reserves – and oil companies are very desperate to get reserves.»

Conoco is paying just $1.63 per proven barrel of oil, which is between a third and a quarter typical……… costs in the West. And for Lukoil, the…….. will bring much-needed Western management and…….

In addition to the…….. investment, Conoco and Lukoil have announced a global…….. That could come in handy in Iraq, for instance. Lukoil has an existing……… with the Iraqi government to develop the country’s West Qurna field, and Conoco has the links with the U.S. government to help ensure these……. now get recognized.

Welcome reassurance. Analysts say the Russian government got a pretty good……… too – far better than in previous privatizations. Although Conoco paid just above the $1.9 billion…….. price, it was very close to where Lukoil’s……. was……… Even better, however, is the……. the deal gives Russia’s……. in the investment……… In recent months, many foreign investors have been appalled at Moscow’s…….. of Yukos, Russia’s No. 2 oil company, which was hit with huge and controversial tax…….. ($7 billion and rising).

The crackdown is generally seen as punishment for Yukos’…… owner and former CEO, Mikhail Khodorkovsky, for getting too involved in politics. But the move against Yukos, which may soon be dismantled and partially………, has raised much more general questions about Russia’s legal…… and the security of private……

By welcoming Conoco’s investment, Putin hopes to show that the crackdown on Yukos wasn’t part of a wider…….. to freeze out foreign investment. Yet it also demonstrates that business in Russia can still be very……. A wink and a nod from the President is nice reassurance. But one day, even the occupant of the Kremlin will change.

Source: Business Week (online), Sept. 30, 2004

Terms:

сommunity, majority, image, claims, backing, rights, campaign, know-how, players, stock, alliance, deal, stability, property, starting, fair, sue, media, treatment, bid, governments, stake, major, rumored, renationalized, privatization, investment, outbid, investors, favorite, decision, analysts, access, replacement, equity, partnership, agreement, trading, boost, unpredictable, risks, CEO

Exercise 5. Translate into English.

От редакции FT: «Газпром» по соседству

Британия обычно не препятствует покупке или поглощению своих компаний зарубежными, и наша газета поддерживает такую политику. Мы выступаем против протекционистских действий правительств, например, Франции и Люксембурга в отношении Mittal Steel, пытающейся поглотить Arcelor, или правительства Польши, которое чинит препятствия экспансии иностранных банков. Но и противоположные действия правительства могут сильно тревожить. Многих заставили вздрогнуть сообщения о возможных планах «Газпрома» – контролируемой Кремлем квазимонополии, обладающей почти четвертью мировых запасов газа, – приобрести британскую газораспределительную компанию Centrica, контролирующую более половины британского розничного рынка газа. И если акционеры Centrica уже начали потирать руки, то в обществе заговорили о возможных последствиях сделки для безопасности газовых поставок и рыночной конкуренции.

Конечно, эти планы далеки от реализации. Поток спекуляций на этой неделе был спровоцирован менеджерами «Газпрома», которые обычно более небрежны в заявлениях о возможных поглощениях, чем могут себе позволить руководители компании, чьи ADR торгуются на западных биржах. Но идея в целом выглядит правдоподобной.

Ранее объявленная цель «Газпрома» – контролировать 20% газового рынка Британии. Чтобы достичь этого, совсем не обязательно иметь дистрибьютора в собственности. Но дело в том, что если Centrica испытывает нехватку газа (компания потеряла газовые месторождения в ходе либерализации рынка), то у «Газпрома» его в избытке.

Но у «Газпрома» особенная стать. Это бывшее Министерство газовой промышленности, преобразованное в компанию, которая, несмотря на значительное количество российских и иностранных миноритариев, сейчас находится под более жестким, чем когда-либо, контролем Кремля. Его позиция в отношении Украины показывает, что «Газпром» является инструментом государственной политики. Тут можно возразить, что если «Газпром» заплатит несколько миллиардов за доступ к клиентам Centrica, то у него появится еще одна причина, чтобы не оставить их без тепла. Но обычно (если не брать в расчет фактор геополитики, влиянию которого, к сожалению, подвержен «Газпром») отношения между производителями и потребителями газа гораздо ближе, чем между производителями и потребителями нефти. Долгосрочные контракты и газопроводы всегда создавали между поставщиками и потребителями нечто вроде брачного союза, в отличие от более гибких и нерегулярных сделок, характерных для нефтяного рынка. Так что дополнительные гарантии безопасности, обеспеченные участием «Газпрома» в местном британском бизнесе, могут быть и не такими уж значительными.

Любая связка «Газпром»—Centrica будет шагом к воссозданию той самой вертикальной интеграции (производитель – ретейлер), разрушить которую и была призвана либерализация британского рынка. На самом деле некоторая реинтеграция уже идет благодаря усилиям розничных энергокомпаний, стремящихся заполучить хотя бы часть производителей в собственность. Но объединение крупнейшего розничного торговца газом с таким крупным производителем, как «Газпром», потребует крайне жестких мер регулирования, чтобы предотвратить, например, хищническое ценообразование.

Даже если «Газпром» никогда не сделает предложение о покупке, другие крупные производители газа могут открыть охоту на ретейлеров. Было бы неплохо заранее подумать о последствиях таких сделок.

Источник: Ведомости, 07.02.2006

Lesson 19
New Industry

Read and translate the text and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

Venture capital

Venture capital (VC) is capital provided by outside investors for financing of new, growing or struggling businesses. A venture capital fund is a pooled investment vehicle that primarily invests the financial capital of third-party investors in enterprises that are too risky for the standard capital markets or bank loans.

Venture capital differs substantially from ‘traditional’ financing:

– Funding provided to new firms with potential for above-average growth.

– Often provided to startup and other emerging enterprises because they lack the collateral, track record, or earnings required to get a loan.

– The investment, typically requiring a high potential of return, is structured so that it can be liquidated within three to seven years

– Then an initial public offering may take place, or the business merges or is sold, or other sources of capital are found.

– The entrepreneur relinquishes ownership and control of the business.

– VCs typically expect a 20—50% annual ROI at the time they are bought out.

– Typical investments range from $500,000 to $5 million.

– Management experience is a major consideration in evaluating financing prospects.

Venture capital fund operations

The VCs and their partners. Venture capital general partners may be former CEOs at firms similar to those which the partnership funds. Investors in venture capital funds are typically large institutions with huge amounts of available capital, such as state and private pension funds, university endowments, insurance companies, and pooled investment vehicles.

Other positions at venture capital firms include venture partners and entrepreneur-in-residence (EIR). Venture partners «bring in deals» and receive income only on deals they work on (as opposed to general partners who receive income on all deals). EIRs are experts in a particular domain and perform due diligence on potential deals. EIRs are engaged by VC firms temporarily (6 to 18 months) and are expected to develop startup ideas to their host firm. Some EIRs move on to roles such as Chief Technology Officer at a portfolio company.

Fixed-lifetime funds. Most venture capital funds have a fixed life of ten years. This model was pioneered by some of the most successful funds in Silicon Valley through the 1980s to invest in technological trends broadly but only during their period of ascendance, and to cut exposure to management and marketing risks of any individual firm or its product.

In such a fund, the investors have a fixed commitment to the fund that is «called down» by the VCs over time as the fund makes its investments. In a typical venture capital fund, the VCs receive an annual management fee equal to 2% of the committed capital to the fund and 20% of the net profits of the fund («two and 20»). Because a fund may run out of capital prior to the end of its life, larger VCs usually have several overlapping funds at the same time. Smaller firms tend to thrive or fail with their initial industry contacts.

How and why VCs invest

Investments by a venture capital fund can take the form of either preferred stock equity or a combination of equity and debt obligation, often with convertible debt instruments that become equity if a certain level of risk is exceeded. The common stock is often reserved by covenant for a future buyout, as VC investment criteria usually include a planned exit event (an IPO or acquisition), normally within 3 to 7 years.

Venture capital is not suitable for many entrepreneurs. Venture capitalists are very selective in deciding what to invest in; as a rule of thumb, a fund invests only in about one in 400 opportunities presented to it. They are most interested in ventures with high growth potential, as only such opportunities are likely capable of providing the financial returns and successful exit event within the required timeframe that venture capitalists expect. Because of such expectations, most venture funding goes into companies in the fast-growing technology and life sciences or biotechnology fields.

Winners and losers

Venture capitalists hope to be able to sell their stock, warrants, options, convertibles, or other forms of equity in 3 to 7 years, at or after an exit event; this is referred to as harvesting. Venture capitalists know that not all their investments will pay off. The failure rate of investments can be high; anywhere from 20% to 90% of the enterprises funded fail to return the invested capital. In case a venture fails, then the entire funding by the venture capitalist is written off.

Many venture capitalists try to mitigate the risk of failure through diversification. They invest in fledgling companies in different industries and different countries so that the risk across their portfolio is minimized. Others concentrate their investments in the industry that they are familiar with. In either case, they usually work on the assumption that for every ten investments they make, two will be failures, two will be successful, and six will be marginally successful. They expect that the two successes will pay for the time given to, and risk exposure of the other eight. In good times, the funds that do succeed may offer returns of 300 to 1000% to investors.

History

General Georges Doroit is considered to be the father of venture capital industry. In 1946 he founded American Research and Development (ARD) Corporation, whose biggest success was Digital Equipment Corporation. When Digital Equipment went public in 1968 it provided ARD with 101% annualized ROI. ARD’s US$70,000 investment in Digital Corporation in 1959 had a market value of US$37mn in 1968. The first venture-backed startup is generally considered to be Fairchild Semiconductors, funded in 1959 by Venrock Associates. Before World War II, venture capital investments were primarily the domain of wealthy individuals and families. One of the first steps toward a professionally-managed venture capital industry was the passage of the Small Business Investment Act of 1958. The 1958 Act authorized the U.S. Small Business Administration to license private «Small Business Investment Companies» to provide financing and management assistance to small entrepreneurial businesses in the United States. Passage of the Act addressed concerns raised in a Federal Reserve Board report to Congress that concluded that a major gap existed in the capital markets for long-term funding for growth-oriented small businesses. The goal of the SBIC program was, and still is, to stimulate the U.S. economy in general, and small businesses in particular, by facilitating the flow of capital to pioneering small concerns.

Venture capital is a phenomenon most closely associated with the United States and technologically innovative ventures. Due to structural restrictions imposed on American banks in the 1930s there was no private merchant banking industry in the United States, a situation that was quite unique in developed nations.

As of 2006 some of the most well known VC Firms are:

– Kleiner, Perkins, Caufield and Byers.

– Sequoia Capital.

– Sigma Partners.

The dotcom boom

Due almost entirely to the dotcom boom, the late 1990s were a boom time for the globally-renowned VC firms on Sand Hill Road in San Francisco. IPOs were taking truly irrational leaps, and access to «friends and family» shares was becoming a major determiner of who would benefit from any such IPO; the ordinary investor rarely got a chance to invest at the strike price in this period.

The NASDAQ crash and technology slump that started in March 2000, and the resulting catastrophic losses on overvalued, non-performing startrups, shook VC funds deeply. By 2003, many VCs were focused on writing off companies they funded just a few years earlier, and many funds were «under water»; that is, their portfolio companies were worth less than when invested in. Venture capital investors sought to reduce the large commitments they have made to venture capital funds. As of mid-2003, the conventional wisdom was that the venture capital industry would shrink to about half its present capacity in the following few years. However, Pricewaterhouse Coopers’ MoneyTree Survey shows total venture capital investments holding steady at 2003 levels through Q2 2005. The renaissance of an Internet-driven business (thanks to deals such as eBay’s purchase of Skype, the News Corporation’s purchase of MySpace, and the very successful Google IPO) has helped to revive the VC environment.

Source: Wikipedia

Essential Vocabulary

1.venture capital (VC) – венчурный (рисковый) капитал

venture capitalist – венчурный капиталист

2. capital market – рынок капитала

3. bank loan – банковский заем

4. collateral (collat) n – обеспечение

5. initial public offering (IPO) – первоначальное публичное предложение акций

6. entrepreneur-in-residence (EIR) – «домашний» предприниматель

7. due diligence – процесс должной проверки

8. Chief Technology Officer (CTO) – главный технический директор

9. fixed-lifetime fund – фонд с фиксированным сроком действия

10. pioneer n – первопроходец

pioneer v – прокладывать путь, вести

11. ascendance n – власть, доминирующее положение

12. preferred stock – привилегированные акции

13. convertible (convertibles) debt instruments (bonds) – конвертируемые долговые инструменты (облигации)

14.common stock – обыкновенные акции

15. buyout n – выкуп

buy out v – выкупать

16. rule of thumb – эмпирическое правило, практический метод

17. warrant (WT) n – варрант

18. harvest n – урожай, уборка урожая

harvesting n – уборка урожая

harvest v – собирать урожай

19. write off n – списание

write off v – списывать

20. mitigation n – смягчение, уменьшение

mitigate v – смягчать, уменьшать

21. fledgling company – только что созданная компания

22. annualizing n – пересчет в годовое исчисление

annualize v – пересчитывать на годовой основе

annualized a – пересчитанный на годовой основе

23. passage n – зд. прохождение, принятие (закона)

pass v – принимать (закон)

24. Small Business Administration (SBA) – Администрация по делам малого бизнеса (США)

25. Small Business Investment Company (SBIC) – инвестиционная компания для малого бизнеса (США)

26. Federal Reserve Board (FRB) – Совет управляющих ФРС (США)

27. merchant bank – торговый банк (Великобритания, сходен с инвестиционным банком по функциям)

28. boom n – бум, быстрый экономический подъем, период экономического процветания

boom v – быстро расти, процветать (об экономике)

29. strike price – цена исполнения

30. National Association of Securities Dealers Automated Quotations (NASDAQ) – Автоматизированные котировки Национальной ассоциации дилеров по ценным бумагам (НАСДАК)

31. slump n – краткосрочное падение экономической активности или цены конкретной ценной бумаги

slump v – снижаться, падать (об экономической активности или цене ценной бумаги)

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. What are the main differences between venture capital and the traditional financing? 2. Who are the partners of venture capitalists? 3. What are the characteristic features of fixed-lifetime funds? 4. What are the usual forms of a VC investment? 5. Is venture capital suitable for many entrepreneurs? 6. What is the usual proportion between successes and failures in the VC industry? 7. How can venture capitalists mitigate the risk of failure? 8. How was the VC industry launched? 9. How did the Small Business Investment Act of 1958 promote the VC industry? 10. Why has venture capitalism developed more actively in the US than elsewhere in the world? 11. What was the contribution of the dotcom boom to the development of the VC industry? 12. What were the effects of NASDAQ crash and technological slump? 13. How is the VC industry developing worldwide?

Exercise 2*. In general, businesses set up through venture financing develop by stages described below. Match the names of these stages given under the leading «Venture Financing Terms» with their definitions given below and describe evolution of a fledgling company through these stages.

Stages of Development of a Business

1. source of funding for the early stages of a startup venture where the product, process, or service is in its conceptual or developmental phase

2. from founding the business to the beginning of operations and the generation of revenue

3. initial growth phase, funded by the initial capitalization. Management and operations are in place, and markets initially identified are being penetrated using available resources

4. the business seeks to expand its product line, expand its facilities, identify and penetrate new markets, and continue the growth phase

5. the business is established in its target markets

6. financing provided, usually by private investors or venture capital firms, prior to a company going public, or initiating its next stage of financing

7. an offering of debt, equity or limited partnership interests to a small number of investors (generally 35 or fewer) on a ‘private’ basis. Exempt from the registration requirements of the securities laws

8. either the percentage reduction of ownership in a company resulting from the sale of additional shares of stock, or the difference between the price paid by investors in either a private-placement or public financing

9. the process of investigation by venture capital firms and other investors of a company, its business, and financial plans, prior to proceeding with an investment

10. a study that evaluates a proposed venture’s potential for success

11. an equity ownership position that is provided to a funding source as compensation, or additional compensation, for providing management consulting, financing or miscellaneous services

12. the value assigned to the entrepreneur’s contribution or investment of time and effort in the venture

Venture Financing Terms:

Private Placement. Feasibility Study. Seed Capital. Mezzanine Financing.

Sweat Equity. Startup. First Stage. Dilution. Second Stage. Equity Stake.

Third Stage. Due Diligence.

Exercise 3*. Which of the following statements are not correct and why?

1. A venture capital fund is a pooled investment vehicle that primarily invests the financial capital of third-party investors in enterprises that are too risky for the standard capital markets or bank loans. 2. Venture financing is mainly provided to mature enterprises that have sufficient collateral, good track record, or stable earnings. 3. Venture capitalists typically expect a 5-15% annual return on their investment at the time they are bought out. 4. Investors in venture capital funds are typically large institutions with huge amounts of available capital. 5. Venture capitalists are not very selective in deciding what to invest in; a fund invests in about one in twenty opportunities presented to it. 6. Most venture funding goes into oil and gas sector or service companies. 7. The success rate of investments is high; anywhere from 50% to 70% of the funded enterprises return the invested capital. 8. The first venture-backed startup is generally considered to be Fairchild Semiconductor, funded in 1959 by Venrock Associates. 9. Venture capital is a phenomenon most closely associated with Japan and car making companies. 10. The NASDAQ crash and technology slump that started in March 2000 shook VC funds deeply. 11. The renaissance of an Internet-driven business has helped to revive the VC environment.

Exercise 4*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

Silicon Valley

Silicon Valley is an area of Northern California between the cities of San Francisco and San Jose. Until the middle of the 20th century, this….. region was better known for its apricots and walnuts than for its….. A combination of regional…… and historical accidents conspired to produce one of the greatest……. in the world.

Many people have……. the success of the Valley primarily to the influence of nearby………, particularly Stanford University. In the 1920’s, administrators at Stanford sought to improve the prestige of their institution by….. highly respected…… members from East Coast universities. One important…… was Fred Terman, an electrical engineer from MIT. Like many of his colleagues, he performed……. research in electronics. Unlike many others, though, he encouraged his students to sell….. of these new technologies in the…….. By providing……. and……, Terman enabled two of his first recruits, David Hewlett and William Packard, to…… the audio-oscillator in the late 1930s.

In 1954, Stanford University offered to….. part of Stanford Research Park to……. companies. This began the…….. of industries in Palo Alto. Stanford Research Park, through the……. of a few influential professors and university administrators, became the……. of the budding Silicon Valley. By the 1980s, the entire park had been rented out to…… firms.

The 1950s also witnessed the birth of the…….. industry. Dr. William Shockley, a Cal Tech trained engineer……. electronics by developing the transistor to magnify electronic images and replace vacuum tubes. He and some talented young……. from the East Coast……. Shockley Industries in Palo Alto. Unfortunately, his stubbornness and lack of tact soon alienated many of his colleagues and caused them to…… from his firm and form their own company, Fairchild Semiconductor. It became the first firm to……. exclusively in silicon and rapidly…….. into one of the leaders in the California electronics industry.

Over the next few years this……. would repeat itself several times, as engineers lost control of the companies they started to……. management, and then left to form new companies. AMD, Signetics, National Semiconductor and Intel all started as…… from Fairchild.

The role of……. in the development of Silicon Valley can not be……. The……. of a major military……… Lockheed, to California in 1956 brought federal……. dollars to the area. Semiconductors…….. by the defense agencies amounted to approximately two-fifths of total production. The presence of major research universities and the concentration of……. workers was also an important consideration.

This rapid……. of technology reflects itself in the organization of Silicon Valley as the new technological…….. The people who……. or were employed in these new firms considered themselves as technological…….. and the formal and informal…… that they developed are in some ways akin to the pioneers who settled the West in the 19th century. As modern-day pioneers, they were especially responsive to risky……. that had the potential for great…….

Along with sharing the same type of risks, the…….. also shared a camaraderie unsurpassed almost anywhere else in American industry. Even engineers and scientists who work at……… firms during the workday remained close friends off the job. The manager of one semiconductor firm would not hesitate to call a……. for assistance on technical matters.

The lack of rigid…….. extended to the firms themselves. Beginning with Hewlett and Packard, many of the Silicon Valley companies sought a much more interactive environment between employers and employees…….. of powers followed: major divisions of firms were given a large amount of……..

By the early 1970s there were many….. companies in the area. The growth was fueled by the emergence of the……. industry, beginning with Kleiner Perkins in 1972; the industry exploded after the successful $1.3 billion….. of Apple Computer in December 1980.

Source: Wikepedia

Terms:

frontier, offshoots, marketplace, fledgling, relocation, VC, hiring, contractor, revolutionized, core, equipment, semiconductor, procurement, rewards, entrepreneurs, agricultural, faculty, scholars, hi-tech, defense, Apples, underestimated, advantages, IPO, trailblazers, hierarchies, «science parks», attributed, autonomy, institutions of higher education, recruit, cutting-edge, applications, funds, rent, agglomeration, rival, efforts, start up, founded, resign, developed, pattern, government, highly qualified, rise, launched, communities, ventures, competing, manufacture, decentralization, outside, commercialize

Exercise 5. Translate into English.

Венчурный капитал в России

В России венчурный капитал пока только зарождается, однако потенциально является одним из основных источников финансирования для коммерциализации научно-технических разработок. Финансовый кризис 1998 г., с одной стороны, существенно ослабил финансовую систему России, но, с другой стороны, создал предпосылки для переориентации финансовых ресурсов на реальный сектор экономики. По мнению участников инновационного бизнеса, уже есть сигналы того, что российский торговый, банковский, страховой капитал, капитал пенсионных фондов будет становиться серьезным источником инвестиций в инновационные проекты малых фирм. Разумеется, для успешного развития венчурного капитала в России требуется комплекс мер государственной политики. В настоящее время уже воплощается в жизнь ряд проектов, направленных на развитие венчурного финансирования. Следует отметить, во-первых, работу государственного Фонда содействия развитию малых форм предприятий в научно-технической сфере, возглавляемого И.М. Бортником. Этот фонд предоставляет финансовую поддержку малым инновационным фирмам на возвратной основе.

Во-вторых, с сентября 1997 г. реализуется пилотная программа Европейской ассоциации венчурного капитала по поддержке развития венчурного капитала в странах бывшего СССР (NIS Venture Capital Support Program). Данный проект финансируется Программой ТАСИС Европейского союза. Программа сфокусирована на РФ, Украине и Казахстане и реализует следующие цели:

– провести тренинговые курсы по венчурному финансированию;

– составить и опубликовать справочник по частным компаниям, специализирующимся на инвестициях в акционерный капитал в странах СНГ;

– обеспечить поддержку и возможности для взаимодействия ассоциациям венчурного капитала.

Проект также направлен на рост осведомленности о значимости венчурного капитала как средства финансирования малых и средних предприятий, что должно быть достигнуто благодаря проведению национальных и региональных встреч и семинаров.

В-третьих, на территории России действуют региональные фонды венчурного капитала (РФВК) Европейского банка реконструкции и развития (ЕБРР). Каждый РФВК располагает капиталом в размере $ 30 млн для инвестирования в качестве нового акционерного капитала в средние приватизированные и другие частные предприятия на цели финансирования проектов, которые, как предполагается, должны принести коммерческий доход. Инвестируя средства в акционерный капитал, РФВК подходят к инвестиционным перспективам со среднесрочных позиций. Минимальный размер инвестиции составляет $ 300 тыс., а максимальный – $ 3 млн.

Источник: www.techbusiness.ru (отрывок)

Lesson 20
Global M&As

Read and translate the text and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

Extinction of the Predator

How Merger Mania Has Been a Disaster for the World’s Great Car Manufacturers

The star of the huge Frankfurt Motor show in 2005 may well be the luxury Mercedes-Benz s-class, the model on which the German company is relying to repair its faded reputation for superior quality. But the more significant event will be the presence for the first time of three different vehicles made in China and destined for export.

Today’s controversies over high petrol prices and fuel consuming cars in the huge US market offer only a partial picture of the future facing the auto industry. It may well be fully mature in North America, Europe and Japan, where over-capacity continues to undermine profitability. But globally the industry is set for huge expansion with the motorization of China and India. Within a few years China will replace Japan as the second-largest national market after America. Some experts predict that over the next 20 years more cars will be made than in the entire 110-year history of the industry.

Garel Rhys from Cardiff University says this growth will create the need for 180 new factories, each producing 300,000 cars a year – almost doubling the production capacity of the global industry to over 110 million units annually. Today’s car plants, he says, will need to be «renewed, retooled, refurbished and replaced to remain competitive. There is nowhere for the inefficient to hide.»

That is a bleak message for today’s established producers, many of which have merged their way to giant status, but suffer from legacy costs and operating problems and could now be beaten by new entrants and competitors that did not play the merger game. The question is: which of today’s big carmakers will be hurt the most? The question could be an even tougher one: which will survive?

Other industries subjected to similar waves of new competition have seen dramatic shake-ups and the disappearance of famous names – personal computers offer a good example. Some observers predict just that: famous carmakers will own the technology and brands, while manufacture and distribution will be contracted out. (This already happens with a few low-volume cars, such as the Porsche Boxster).

Consolidation in the car industry has been going on since its earliest days when 200 garage-sized firms were bundled into GM. By the middle of the 20th century famous names such as Studebaker and American Motors were closing down or being acquired by stronger companies, leaving the industry in the hands of GM, Ford and Chrysler.

Consolidation in cars is not as starkly obvious to the consumer as it has been in, say, PCs. Many brands still remain, as mergers and alliances between firms have simply bundled, rather than destroyed, them. No fewer than 58 brands survive among the ten largest manufacturers. In fact, if their affiliates as well as their wholly-owned subsidiaries are counted, the top five company alliances account for 75% of the global market, while adding the next five takes this to 90%, with producers in China, India and Malaysia making up the rest.

The strategy of consolidating behind the brands has not been entirely successful: there is an inverse correlation between the number of brands a firm possesses and profitability. GM is still the big beast of the industry, but it is no longer in any shape to acquire others. It has twice the number of brands of its closest competitor, Ford, but it is second to last in the profitability league. Toyota, the industry’s profitability champion, has only four brands and a handful of models, but a huge range of variants on them.

The industry has experienced a 20-year splurge that has seen GM swallow Saab and Daewoo, while signing up Isuzu, Subaru and Suzuki in Japan. Since 1989, Ford, the next biggest brand-acquirer, has taken over Jaguar, Aston Martin, Land Rover and Volvo. But it, like GM, has done more spending than getting. Jaguar still bleeds cash after an investment topping $5 billion and Volvo until recently has been in the red. None of this has done anything for the company’s profitability, leaving it just above GM and weak Fiat.

Seduced by Scale

The two biggest consolidation deals in the industry are also the most recent: the takeover of Chrysler by Daimler-Benz in 1998, and the alliance of Renault and Nissan the following year. DaimlerChrysler has been a flop so far. It has taken years to revamp Chrysler, slashing its surplus capacity and reviving the brand with new products good enough to drag it back into the black this year. Meanwhile, top management attention was diverted from growing problems at home as quality slid at Mercedes, which lost its dominance of the lucrative German market to its archrival BMW.

The best justification for the DaimlerChrysler deal was the growing cost of electronics systems in luxury cars. Mercedes was the world leader in such sophisticated electronics, but it was not a volume car producer, which meant it labored with a higher cost base. Daimler’s hope was that, by buying Chrysler, it could enter the volume end of the car market. German discipline was to produce rewards in the world’s biggest and (for good manufacturers such as Toyota, Nissan and Honda) most profitable market.

It did not work out that way. Daimler and Chrysler together are worth less in stock market terms than Daimler alone was before the merger. In 2005 the architect of the deal Jurgen Schrempp was nudged out of his CEO’s chair by leading shareholders.

The deal between Renault and Nissan was a bold move by the French company to gain global scale. Having put its house in order, the privatized French company saw its market capitalization rise as that of loss-making Nissan slipped. So Renault’s CEO Louis Schweitzer grabbed the opportunity to give Renault global reach. He made the Japanese a friendly offer. But he was cautious enough to take at first only a 37% stake.

The French later increased their holding to 44%, as Nissan’s industrial debt was cut by profits and by disposal of the firm’s outdated equity stakes in its suppliers. The deal has paid off. Indeed, Nissan’s earnings have been supporting Renault, as the latter has gone thorough a bad period due to the ageing model range and stagnant markets.

So there are several reasons for the end of takeover activity: the binges of the past have left the predators with, at best, no appetite for more or, at worst, with severe indigestion. Moreover, what is left amounts to slim pickings, as GM found when it decided to pay a $2 billion breakup fee merely to go back on a hastily made promise to buy troubled Fiat, after five years of collaboration had shown the Detroit firm how weak its Italian partner was. This surreal episode was a prophetic moment. Once the very fact that brands with the glamour of Ferrari, Alfa-Romeo and Maserati were available would have produced a scramble among potential buyers. Fiat’s financial difficulties would have been regarded as an opportunity, not a threat. Today no one wants to take them on.

The Brand News

The lesson of two decades of frantic M&As in the motor industry is that acquired brands, however strong and attractive they might appear, take years to restore. They first need refreshing, then bending to the shape and behavior of the new family. And they need to be refitted with the new products worthy of the badge on the front.

GM’s unhappy cohabitation with Fiat was concurrent with its ownership of Saab, which it bought as a consolation prize when it was beaten to Jaguar by Ford. 15 years later that, too, looks like a mistake. A frantic upgrade program is underway to reduce costs through platform and component savings with other members of the GM alliance group. But using the corporate parts bin is a quick way to cheapen a brand.

And then there is Volkswagen, pride of the European predators. It used acquisitions to expand geographically – first southwards to acquire SEAT in Spain, then eastwards to take over Skoda in the Czech Republic. In parallel with a masterful 20-year rehabilitation of Audi as a prestige brand, VW also snapped up Bentley and Lamborghini from their distressed owners.

Bentley has been a fabulous success with its Continental coupe. Lamborghini has a couple of new street racers that look good but have not yet turned a profit. Critics want to know how VW will cope with Volkswagen, SEAT and Skoda brands all fighting for the middle market and competing with each other, and what it can do to recover from the recent slide in the share of the American market, where only a few years ago it was zooming ahead. Expected job cuts in Germany, maybe up to 10,000 of them, will not begin to address that problem, but might provoke damaging strikes.

In-breeding as a Virtue

The most sensible of the carmakers has spurned the consolidation game. Toyota is still not the world’s largest by number of cars built, but given the speed at which it is growing (output has expanded by 1.5 million vehicles in the past five years, half the total growth in world production) and the speed at which GM is shrinking, the day when Toyota becomes the biggest is probably no more than five years away. Investors already recognize it as the leader. Its market capitalization, at $150 billion, is greater than that of GM, Ford and DaimlerChrysler combined ($90 billion).

This superiority was achieved by concentrating on organic growth. Apart from scooping up Daihatsu years ago, Toyota concentrated solely on renovating its own offering, with a relentless focus on efficiency, cost-cutting and new variations of successful models brought to market at an increasingly rapid rate.

Toyota’s luxury car business, Lexus, was created from scratch, rather than by the purchase of some other firm’s famous, but tired, brand. Lexus is now the best-selling prestige brand in America.

People laughed when Toyota announced its plans for creating its own luxury brand rather than paying for some other firm’s glorious history. But Lexus was spared all the tears and sweat associated with a takeover. And it succeeded by following a policy that many carmakers seem to find hard to copy: give people cars that don’t break and treat customers like royalty.

Buying brands and additional international reach have been the strategies behind many takeovers. But so was the aspiration of using volume to achieve economies of scale. Analysts are no longer sure, however, that there is any great merit in that. Keith Hayes of Goldman Sachs reckons that 500,000 copies off a single platform is about the point at which scale benefits start to drop away.

In the past, making large numbers of a few models was the way to thrive. Now it is all about making a few copies of a lot of derivatives. Look at the dozens of model categories in today’s Mercedes and BMW ranges – a few years ago they had just three each. Yet total sales of each brand are still only around 1 million. Creating niches from common platforms is the new way to compete. BMW now sees strong competitive advantage in maintaining differences between all the cars it sells. It is investing in infrastructure so that customers can change the specification of their car as late as 100 hours before it is built. That encourages customers to spend more on optional equipment. For the carmaker it also means that every assembly plant has to be surrounded by its own suppliers. An engine cannot be shipped across continents within 100 hours of a request. Separate factories allow for more variation, but at the price of fewer economies of scale. However, the greater the specification by consumers, the higher the premium price the carmaker can command.

The obvious conclusion might be that the 100-year-old car industry has done its rationalization and consolidation and that what remains must therefore be leaner and fitter. It should be, but it isn’t. John Murray from Trinity College, Dublin, points to a worrying loss of power by the carmakers, rather than the expected gain. The makers have pushed much of their intellectual property away to the first tier of component suppliers, which have taken physical assets along with the necessary skills. And the new multi-brand retailers and the Internet-savvy consumers are together gaining power and a bigger chunk of the value chain. The so-called car manufacturers are going to be left to take care of just design, marketing and brands – a long way from the traditional skill of managing big manufacturing business.

Of course, there is just a chance that GM will be renovated to become the next Nissan. Implausible recovery stories have happened every decade and have paid returns far greater than any takeover bid ever did. More likely is that GM will go on struggling with the consequences of the industry’s consolidation. In future, as the global industry expands, new names will join those of Toyota and a few others. Yesterday’s predators, obsessed by their takeovers and mergers, will give way to nimbler, smarter carmakers that will reshape the global industry.

Source: The Economist (on line), Sept. 8, 2005 (abridged)

Essential Vocabulary

1. controversy n – противоречие, спор, дискуссия

controversial a – противоречивый, спорный, дискуссионный

2. retool v – переоборудовать, оснащать новой техникой

3. refurbish v – переоборудовать, переоснастить

4.legacy n – наследство, наследие

5. wholly-owned subsidiary – дочернее предприятие, на 100% принадлежащее материнской компании

6. inverse correlation – обратная корреляция

7. in the red – с убытком

8.in the black – без убытков

9. cost base – база затрат

10. market capitalization (cap) – рыночная капитализация

11. loss-making – убыточный

12. reach n – зд. охват

13. holding n – капиталовложение, участие в капитале компании, владение, холдинг

holding a – холдинговый

14. outdated a – устаревший

15. payoff n – доходность, выплата, компенсация; развязка

pay off v – выплачивать, погашать долг, окупаться

16. predator n – хищник

predatory a – хищный, грабительский

17. breakup fee – неустойка, комиссия за прекращение контракта

18. collaboration n – сотрудничество, совместная работа

collaborate v – сотрудничать

collaborative a – на основе сотрудничества, совместный

19. strike n – забастовка; исполнение (опциона)

20. organic growth – органический рост

21. derivative n – созданный на базе чего-то, производный (в т. ч. финансовый инструмент)

derivative a – производный

22. optional a – не обязательный, по выбору

23. assembly plant – сборочный завод

24. premium price – цена с премией

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. What are the prospects and the estimated growth rates of the global car industry? 2. How was the process of consolidation in the car industry developing? 3. What is the relationship between the number of brands a carmaker possesses and its profitability? 4. What are the two biggest recent consolidation deals in the car industry and what were their respective outcomes? 5. Why has the takeover activity ended recently? 6. What are the problems that GM currently faces? 7. Has Volkswagen’s acquisition strategy paid off so far? 8. What is the secret of Toyota’s success? 9. What is the current winning strategy in the car business?

Exercise 2*. Find 15 verbs in the text that describe the process of improvement and modernization and make sentences of your own using them.

Exercise 3*. Match the definitions of takeover terms with the terms given below and tell a story of a real or invented takeover using as many of them as you can.

1. a takeover company’s best and most profitable division, which it may sell to discourage the raider

2. a provision in the employment contract of top-level managers that provides for severance pay or other compensation should the manager lose his or her job as the result of a takeover

3. a company «pays off» a potential acquirer to persuade him to leave the company alone. It pays him a premium to buy back the stock he purchased

4. firms or individuals that are employed by a target company to fend off a takeover bid; these include investment bankers, accountants, attorneys, tax specialists, etc. They aid by utilizing various anti-takeover strategies, thereby making the target company economically unattractive and acquisition more costly

5. anti-takeover strategy used by target firms whereby the target firm issues a charter that prevents individuals with more than 10% ownership of convertible securities from converting these securities into voting stock

6. the target company toward which a takeover attempt is directed

7. tactic in corporate finance used to counter a takeover or merger bidder who has made a formal bid to shareholders to buy their shares. When the board of directors of the target company meets to consider the bid, they «just say no».

8. a defense tactic used by the takeover target firm. The company goes after the raider firm and tries to take it over to prevent being taken over.

9. an illegal activity in which an investor or group of investors holds securities in its name until the raider needs them. The raider used this tactic secretly to gain a large enough stake in a firm. This allows him to «sneak up on» the takeover target; the target has little time to plan a defense.

10. a provision set up by the target company that forces the cost of a hostile acquisition to increase dramatically. The aim is to make it too expensive for the raider to acquire the firm.

11. the person or company attempting the takeover of another company

12. provision under which a target company will acquire a troublesome firm in order to raise the acquisition price and make acquisition by other parties economically unattractive

13. when a target firm implements this strategy, it will make an effort to make it unattractive to the hostile bidder. For example, a company may agree to liquidate or destroy all valuable assets, or schedule debt repayment to be due immediately following a hostile takeover

14. anti-takeover corporate charter amendments

15. a raider who sells off some of the assets of the target company once the target is acquired

16. any technique used by a target firm in which takeover protection could result in self-destruction

17. a company that is friendly to the takeover target. It intercedes to offer better terms or a better price

Takeover Terms:

Shark Repellents. Poison Pill. Stripper. White Knight. Crown Jewel. Suicide Pill. Lobster Trap. Golden Parachute. Scorched Earth Defense. Greenmail. Killer Bees. Maiden. Pac Man. Raider. Parking. Safe Harbor. Nancy Reagan Defense.

Exercise 4*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

Mergers and Acquisitions

The term M&A refers to the aspect of……. strategy and management dealing with the merging and acquiring of different companies. Usually mergers occur in a friendly setting where executives from the respective companies participate in a…… process to ensure a successful combination of all parts. Historically, though, mergers have often failed to add significantly to………

Financing M&A

Technically, what differentiates a merger from an acquisition is how it is financed:

Merger

A «merger» or «merger of equals» is often financed by an all stock deal (a stock…….). An all stock deal occurs when all of the owners of stocks of either company get the same amount of stock in the new combined……. The term…… is sometimes used to indicate the effective opposite of a merger, where one company splits into two.

Acquisition

An acquisition (of un-equals, one large buying one small) can involve a cash and…….. combination, or just cash, or a combination of cash and stock of the…… entity, or just stock. In addition, the acquisition can take the form of a purchase of the stock or other…….. of the target entity, or the acquisition of its assets.

High-yield

In some cases, a company may acquire another company by issuing…….. debt to raise funds (often referred to as a……). The reason the debt carries a high yield is the……. involved. The owner can not or does not want to risk his own money in the deal, but…….. are willing to finance the deal for a high……. The combined company will be the……..of the high-yield debt and it will be on its balance sheet. This may result in the combined company having a low……… to loan capital ratio.

Motives behind M&A

The following M&A motives are considered to add shareholder value:

………: This refers to the fact that the combined company can often reduce……… departments or operations, lowering the costs of the company relative to theoretically the same revenue stream, thus increasing profit.

Increased revenue/Increased market share: This motive assumes that the company will be absorbing a major competitor and increasing its power (by………. increased market share) to set prices.

……….: For example, a bank buying a stock broker could then sell its banking products to the stock broker’s customers, while the broker can sign up the bank’s customers for brokerage……… Or, a manufacturer can acquire and sell…….. products.

……….: Better use of complementary resources.

Taxes: A profitable company can buy a…….. to use the target’s tax……..

Geographical or other………: This is designed to smooth the earnings results of a company, which over the long term smoothes the stock price of a company, giving………. investors more confidence in investing in the company. However, this does not always……… to shareholders.

The following motives are considered to not add shareholder value:

Diversification: While this may hedge a company against a……… in an individual industry it fails to deliver value, since it is possible for individual shareholders to achieve the same hedge by diversifying their……… at a much lower cost than those associated with a merger.

Overextension: Tend to make the organization fuzzy and………..

Manager’s ambitions: Often the executives of a company will just buy others because doing so is newsworthy and increases the…….. of the company.

………: Managers have larger companies to manage and hence more power.

Manager’s сompensation: In the past, certain executive management teams had their……….based on the total amount of profit of the company, instead of the profit per share, which would give the team a perverse……… to buy companies to increase the total profit while decreasing the profit per share (which hurts the owners of the company, the shareholders).

Source: Wikepidia

Terms:

overlapping, risk, economies of scale, incentive, borrower, portfolios, profile, write-offs, high-yield, cross selling, corporate finance, due diligence, empire building, conservative, shareholder value, swap, entity, «demerger», debt, acquiring, equity interest, leveraged buyout, cost of capital, shareholder’s equity, capturing, accounts, complementary, synergy, loss maker, diversification, deliver value, downturn, unmanageable, remuneration, third parties

Exercise 5. Translate into English.

Абрамович свое получит

«Газпром» заплатит $13 млрд за 72,6% акций «Сибнефти».

Заключена крупнейшая в истории России сделка: «Газпром» покупает 72,6% акций «Сибнефти» за $13 млрд. Продавец, самый богатый россиянин Роман Абрамович, возможно, навсегда покончит с бизнесом внутри страны, оставив здесь лишь благотворительные проекты.

Сделка десятилетия

Весной 2004 г. «Газпром» впервые объявил, что хочет стать нефтяной компанией. Сначала он собирался поглотить «Роснефть» и «Юганскнефтегаз», который выставлялся на торги за долги «ЮКОСа». Но, когда «Юганск» достался «Роснефти», а та отбилась от слияния, «Газпром» начал договариваться о покупке «Сибнефти».

Вчера ударили по рукам: «Газпром» подписал соглашение с Millhouse Capital по покупке 72,6% «Сибнефти» за $13 млрд, сообщили компании в совместном заявлении. Еще 3% «Сибнефти» монополия выкупила у Газпромбанка, и в ее распоряжении будет более 75% нефтяной компании. Сделка заключена на рыночных условиях, цитирует «Газпром» председателя совета директоров, главу администрации президента Дмитрия Медведева. Вчерашняя цена одной бумаги в РТС – $3,65, днем ранее – $4, а по условиям сделки – $3,8. Капитализация «Сибнефти» в РТС – $17,3 млрд, а стоимость 72,6% – $12,57 млрд. «Всем очевидно, что условия рыночные, а цена справедлива для всех», – говорит Боб Форесман, глава Dresdner Kleinwort Wasserstein в России, которая консультировала «Газпром».

Подробнее ни «Газпром», ни «Сибнефть» не комментируют ситуацию. Два хорошо знакомых с условиями сделки бизнесмена обещают, что закроется она быстро: владельцы получат все деньги до конца октября. Это подтверждает и менеджер «Газпрома». В сделку войдут некоторые активы, не принадлежащие «Сибнефти» напрямую: 50% «Славнефти» и 38,5% в Московском НПЗ. Об этом сообщили два источника, близких к сделке. $13 млрд – это не все доходы продавцов компании. Незадолго до сделки акционеры «Сибнефти» утвердили дивиденды в $2,3 млрд.

Кредитовать «Газпром» на покупку будут банки ABN Amro и Dresdner Bank, Citigroup, Credit Suisse First Boston, Goldman Sachs, Morgan Stanley. Два банкира утверждают, что речь идет о займе до $13 млрд. Часть кредита «Газпром» впоследствии рефинансирует за счет средств, которые в конце года получит от «Роснефтегаза» (166,4 млрд руб.), а также за счет долгосрочных кредитов и еврооблигаций.

Формально «Газпром» не получил разрешения на покупку, а его совет директоров перенес вопрос на следующее заседание. Против сделки прямо высказывался министр экономического развития Герман Греф. Но это уже не имеет значения, уверен источник, близкий к Кремлю. В июле Владимир Путин признался, что знает о переговорах и акционеры «Сибнефти» «должны воспринимать это как рыночную сделку». Тогда его слова трактовали по-разному, говорит собеседник «Ведомостей», но теперь ясно, что это было одобрение.

Покупка «Газпрома» – крупнейшая за всю историю нашей страны. Максимум M&A в России зафиксировал Ernst & Young: в 2004 г. было заключено сделок на $30 млрд с учетом «Юганска». Заодно сделка с «Сибнефтью» попала на 3-е место в списке слияний в мировом энергосекторе, оплаченных деньгами. В 1999 г., по данным Thomson Financial, группа инвесторов купила итальянскую Ente Nazionale per l’Energia за $18,7 млрд, а испанская Repsol заплатила за аргентинскую YPF $17,4 млрд.

Источник: Ведомости, 29.09.05 (отрывок)

Lesson 21
Emerging Markets

Read and translate the text and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

Emerging Markets: Has Their Time Finally Come?

With the world poised at critical crossroads – between recession and growth, war and peace, optimism and pessimism – now seems to be a timely moment to reconsider the case for emerging markets. In 2003, emerging equity markets actually held their value more successfully than developed markets, with declines of considerably smaller magnitude than those seen in the U.S., Europe and developed Asia.

The term «emerging markets» was coined by the World Bank’s International Finance Corporation in the early 1980s. Typically, emerging markets are in countries that are in the process of industrialization, with lower gross national product (GNP) per capita than developed countries. Of the 130 countries that the international financial community considers to be emerging countries, approximately 40 currently have stock markets. Emerging markets became the new frontier of global investing in the late 1980s and saw spectacular returns in the early 1990s, only to be followed by an exceptionally long span of disappointing returns. These markets seemed to lurch from one period of intense crisis to another with only intermittent spells of relief. The most intense storms during the 1990s were the Mexican peso devaluation of 1994 and its subsequent «tequila effect» contagion, the Asian financial crisis of 1997—1998, and the Russian ruble devaluation and debt default of 1998, which spread systemic risk into developed markets. Recently, the Argentine financial crisis has been in the spotlight.

During the longest U.S. bull market in history, emerging markets might better have been termed «submerging markets», declining 43% from 1994 to 2001, during a period when the S&P 500 index gained 130%. The disconnect between the potential of emerging markets and the actual returns of recent years has been extremely trying for investors, and many have decreased or eliminated their allocation to this asset class.

Despite the current sentiment, there is a strong case to be made that now is an ideal time for emerging markets investment. Like value investing renaissance in 2000 following the burst of the Internet bubble, market turning points are often uncomfortable, and even painful in the short term. It is important to remember that when the economic outlook and investor sentiment are at their worst, even a small turn of events toward the positive can be enough to re-ignite markets. Some observations suggest that emerging markets offer a compelling investment opportunity at present.

1. Historically Low Valuations

Valuation levels are extremely strong for the emerging markets asset class and even more so for active, risk-controlled emerging markets portfolios, which have a single-digit price-to-earnings ratio, with attractive earnings growth forecasts. Overall, the emerging markets are the most attractively valued equities available to investors.

The emerging markets asset class is now selling at historically low valuation levels as compared to similar assets in developed markets. Based on P/E, valuations are currently half those of developed markets, compared to an average of 0.75 over the past 15 years. Such compellingly strong fundamental value cannot be ignored.

2. Economic Triggers – Near Term

Of course, valuations alone will not ensure strong equity market returns if there is no improvement in the underlying economic climate. However, markets are discounting mechanisms and tend to rise in advance of actual economic recovery. Emerging markets have been one of the more responsive asset classes in discounting economic change. We saw this in Mexico in the mid-1990s, when the stock market recovered well in advance of the actual turnaround in the economy and currency.

While the prospective economic recovery in the developed markets is likely to be more drawn-out and less active in the early stages than in past recoveries, the emerging markets are likely to gain significantly from a discounting of world economic recovery. This could start within the next 6 to 12 months, based on historical precedent.

In addition, areas within the emerging markets are actually among the few pockets of potential strength in global growth. Ironically, some of the currently stronger economic growth prospects would be the former command-and-control economies of China, Russia and central Europe. Most of the developed economies appear to have uncertain prospects for next year, especially the U.S. and Japan. The emerging markets, in contrast, appear better poised to recover, having experienced the downturn earlier and in many cases more severely than their developed counterparts.

3. Market Volatility Change as a Spur to Outperformance

In addition, emerging markets have historically shown good performance when global equity market volatility has reached a peak and then declined. Global market volatilities have continued at a high level after their September peaks, but a reduction of uncertainty regarding world political and economic issues could be expected to reduce volatility levels – which would be beneficial to emerging markets based on past patterns.

4. Economic Triggers – Long Term

Beyond the near-term triggers, there are some long-term economic and political developments that may be quietly laying the foundation for a sustained period of better performance from these countries. These would include the world’s increased recognition of the strategic importance of developing nations, new models for economic development that stress free markets and individual initiative, and evidence that nations that followed now-discredited approaches to development (such as the old Asian economic model) are already striking out on new paths.

In the aftermath of the September 11 terrorist attacks on the United States, there is a heightened awareness of the importance of key emerging markets in global security. Recently, the U.S. has stepped up economic assistance to supporters in the war against terrorism, including Pakistan, Egypt and Turkey. It seems likely that a greater degree of political partnership with these nations could well translate into greater investor attention, stronger capital flows and positive market performance.

It is also likely that there will be broader support for emerging markets globally, as their pivotal role in the new world order emerges. Potential political and economic instability in the emerging markets could create havoc for the world economy. The recognition that lack of economic opportunity provides a fertile breeding ground for terrorism are expected to solidify global support for measures aimed at reducing instability in the world’s developing regions. Greater stability would have a positive effect on emerging markets, reducing the risk premium and boosting equity values. Even a focus on just the largest markets would likely boost the overall asset class, as «big ten» alone accounts for over 60% of total emerging markets capitalization (based on the MSCI Emerging Markets Free index).

Another stimulus to the long-term economic performance of emerging markets is greater recognition of free, open, transparent markets in promoting economic growth. Despite the noisy protests of «anti-globalization» groups at recent multinational meetings, there is a growing consensus that economic development promotes personal freedom. Greater acceptance of the linkage between economic development, free markets and individual freedom is likely to increase over time, stimulating growth in emerging capital markets.

Leading economists with influence on emerging markets policymakers have been arguing that free markets solve problems most effectively. They show the importance of three key characteristics for growing economies – openness, macro stability and small government. Wider acceptance of these views can be expected to promote long-term, stable growth.

Evidence that this is already occurring can be seen in Asia. Asian companies and policymakers demonstrate a clear movement away from the old economic model that prevailed prior to the 1997-98 financial crisis towards a more open, market-driven system. The old model was one in which the consumer saved actively, banks lent carelessly, and borrowing corporations over-invested with poor returns. While creating the illusion of steady growth, this model was in fact unsustainable.

While the degree of progress towards a new Asian economic model varies from country to country, our observations confirm a general shift towards a framework where consumers spend more and borrow more. Lending institutions in turn have tighter lending standards, putting corporations into competition for capital and necessitating higher returns on investment. This new paradigm offers the prospect of more sustainable growth and higher valuations for investors.

5. Assessing the Long-Term Fundamental Case

The fundamental case for emerging markets investment remains sound. The two decades since these countries first made forays into the capital markets are only a short period in world economic development and a fleeting moment in history. Yet during this period emerging markets have come a long way in establishing sound fiscal and monetary policies, restructuring their economies, addressing corporate governance, and improving their economic fundamentals. Keeping this in mind, the potential for continued rapid, positive change in these economies and markets is still very strong.

Long-term fundamental positives for the emerging markets include:

– Large, rapidly industrializing populations

– Undervalued currencies

– Declining current account deficits

– Improving infrastructures

– Competitive wages

– Increased competition, reform and restructuring

– High savings rates

– Long-term propensity toward growth

Of course, emerging markets vary a great deal in their political realities, their cultural and national identities, and their legal and economic institutions. Many emerging market populations are still in poverty and lack the basic means for development. Great attention needs to be paid to understanding the multifaceted nature of these countries. In short, investment in these markets remains challenging. However, we believe that with use of a wide array of information and skilled application of disciplined analytical tools, it is possible to avoid troubled areas and selectively invest in high-return countries and companies.

6. Conclusion

We think investors should look past the current market anxiety and make a careful and objective appraisal of the present opportunities in the emerging markets. We believe this asset class will serve investors extremely well in the long term, and that the current valuations and outlook justify an increase now in emerging markets allocations for global fund sponsors. The current uncertainty, while uncomfortable in the near term, provides a classic long-term buying opportunity.

Source: Ronald Frashure, Charles Wang of Acadian Asset Management, 2003. www.oycf.org

Essential Vocabulary

1. magnitude n – величина, размеры; важность, значимость

2. World Bank – Мировой банк

3. International Finance Corporation (IFC) – Международная финансовая корпорация (МФК)

4. Gross National Product (GNP) – валовой национальный продукт (ВНП)

5. per capita – на душу населения

6. devaluation n – девальвация, обесценение

devalue v – обесценивать

7. contagion n – заражение (риск распространение финансового кризиса из одной страны в другую или риск того, что проблемы дочерних компаний перекинутся на материнскую)

8. default n – дефолт, невыполнение денежных обязательств, неплатеж, отказ от уплаты долга

defaulter n – сторона, не выполняющая обязательства, неплательщик, банкрот

default v – объявлять дефолт

9. systemic risk – системный риск

10. bull market – рынок «быков»

11. S&P 500 index – индекс 500 акций «Стэндард-энд-Пурс»

12. bubble n – пузырь (ситуация, когда конъюнктура поднимается до уровня, не имеющего объективной основы)

13.outlook n – вид, перспектива, вид на будущее, прогноз

14. downturn n – начало спада деловой активности или спада на рынке

15. risk premium – премия за риск

16. Morgan Stanley Capital International (MSCI) – Международные индексы капитала банка «Морган Стэнли»

17. pivot n – основа, опора

pivotal a – основной, опорный

18. policymaker n – лицо, разрабатывающее или претворяющее в жизнь политику

19. saving n – зд. сбережение

save v – зд. сберегать

20. fiscal policy – финансовая политика (бюджетная и налоговая)

21. monetary policy – денежно-кредитная и в некоторых случаях валютная политика

22. fundamental n – фундаментальный (базовый) фактор

fundamental a – фундаментальный

23. current account – текущий платежный баланс, текущий счет

24. propensity n – склонность

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. What are the emerging markets? 2. What were the main trends in their development over the last two decades? 3. Why are the emerging market equities attractive for investors? 4. What emerging economies have the potential for strong growth? 5. What are the prospects of the emerging markets volatility? 6. What long-term economic and political developments may be laying the foundation for sustainable performance from the emerging markets? 7. Why could free markets stimulate the development of the emerging economies? 8. What are the long-term fundamental positive factors in the emerging markets’ development?

Exercise 2*. Find terms in the text that match definitions given below and make sentences with each term.

1. a period of time during which stock market prices are rising

2. that part of the balance of payments recording current, i.e. non-capital, transactions

3. failure to make payments or repayments of interest or principal on the due date

4. security markets in newly industrialized countries with capital markets at an early stage of development

5. the process of opening and integrating markets across national borders

6. the private-sector lending arm of the World Bank

7. the policy of a government or central bank in monetary affairs, having regard to broad goals such as economic growth and restraint of inflation

8. a situation where problems in any one financial institution or market may spread, widely endangering the whole system

9. the primary financer of development projects in emerging-market nations that was created with the IMF at the Bretton Woods conference in 1944

Exercise 3*. Name all risks associated with doing business in Russia as an emerging country and describe what they entail.

Exercise 4*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

Dreaming with the BRICs

Over the next 50 years, Brazil, Russia, India and China – the BRICs – could become a much larger force in the world…… If things go right, in less than 40 years, the BRIC economies together could be larger than the G6 in……. By 2025 they could…….. over half the size of the G6. Currently, they are…….. less than 15%.

About two-thirds of the increase in US dollar……. from the BRICs should come from higher real growth, with the balance through currency…….. The BRICs’ real……… could appreciate by up to 300% over the next 50 years (an…… of 2.5% a year).

The……. in GDP relative to the G6 takes place steadily over the period, but is most dramatic in the first 30 years. Growth for the BRICs is likely to slow significantly toward the end of the period, with only India seeing…….. significantly above 3% by 2050. And…….. in the BRIC are still likely to be poorer on average than in the G6 economies, with the exception of Russia. China’s…….. income could be roughly what the developed economies are now (about US $30,000).

As early as 2009, the annual increase in US dollar…….. from the BRICs could be greater than that from the G6 and more than twice as much in dollar terms as it is now.

The key…… underlying our……… is that the BRICs maintain policies and develop institutions that are supportive of growth. Each of the BRICs faces significant……….. in keeping development on track. This means that there is a good chance that our………. are not met, either through bad policy or bad luck. But if the BRICs come anywhere close to meeting the predictions set out here, the…….. for the………. of growth and economic……… could be large.

The relative importance of the BRICs as an…….. of new……… growth and spending power may shift more dramatically and quickly than expected. Higher growth in these economies could……… the impact of……… populations and slower growth in the……… economies.

Higher growth may lead to higher……… and increased demand for capital. The………. of the BRICs in investment………. could rise sharply. Capital…….. might move further in their favor, prompting major………. realignments.

Rising……… may also see these economies move through the «sweet spot» of growth for different kinds of products, as local spending patterns change. This could be an important determinant of demand and……… patterns for a range of………

As today’s advanced economies become a shrinking part of the world economy, the accompanying shifts in spending could provide significant……… for……… companies. Being invested in and involved in the right markets – particularly the right emerging markets – may become an increasingly important………. choice.

The…….. of the world’s ten largest economies may look quite different in 2050. The largest economics in the world (by GDP) may no longer be the………. (by income per capita), making strategic choices for firms more complex.

Source: Goldman Sachs Research Report, 2003 (summary), www.gs.com.

Terms:

GDP, implications, per capita, list, richest, worth, global, economy, portfolios, commodities, assumption, pricing, currency, US dollar terms, activity, flows, account for, ageing, appreciation, exchange rates, opportunities, average, shift, growth rates, individuals, spending, projections, challenges, forecasts, pattern, engine, demand, offset, advanced, weight, incomes, strategic, returns

Exercise 5. Translate into English.

Цифра недели: $56 млрд. Нашествие

Разбогатевшие компании из развивающихся стран обосновываются на Западе. В 2005 г. они потратили на покупку европейских компаний $42 млрд, а американских – $14 млрд. В сумме это в 2,5 раза больше, чем в 2004 г.

Приход новичков стал оформляться в тенденцию в последние пару лет. Одна из причин – приток в развивающиеся страны больших денег. Многие из них экспортируют сильно подорожавшие сырьевые товары. Кроме того, быстрый рост экономики этих стран привлек на их рынки акции и облигации многих международных инвесторов, в результате чего сильно снизилась стоимость заемного капитала.

Но не только легкие деньги подпитывают зарубежную экспансию. И здесь особенно показателен пример азиатских технологических компаний. Годами они «не высовывались», производили себе электронику и бытовую технику по заказам западных компаний и между тем накопили капитал, ноу-хау, сформировали производственную культуру. И теперь с уверенностью начали скупать дорогие западные бренды: в сочетании с низкозатратной производственной и сборочной базой это позволит им потеснить лидеров рынка. IBM уже невыгодно выпускать персональные компьютеры, и она продала этот бизнес китайской Lenovo.

Тайваньская BenQ теперь производит телефоны под маркой Siemens, а китайская TCL – под маркой Alcatel. Китайская Haier построила в Северной Каролине завод по производству холодильников, и министр торговли штата Боб Фэйт назвал ее «китайской General Electric». В 2005 г. Haier пыталась купить американскую Maytag, производящую популярные пылесосы Hoovers, да не хватило денег противостоять Whirlpool. Индийская Wipro, в которую раньше лишь передавали на аутсорсинг производство программного обеспечения и ИТ-услуги, теперь работает в 35 странах, а в 2005 г. купила европейскую и американскую компании. И, имея резервы в $718 млн, не собирается останавливаться.

Чего может добиться на западном рынке Россия, утонувшая в нефтедолларах (petrodollars)? Гарантировать энергетическую безопасность стран «большой восьмерки»? Но при нынешней политике «Газпрома», не предполагающей масштабные инвестиции в разработку новых месторождений, уже к 2010—2012 гг. газа, по прогнозам экспертов, не хватит даже для внутреннего рынка. И зачем тогда «Газпрому» нужна будет британская Centrica, если он не сможет ей поставить голубое топливо? Хорошо хоть есть свои Кулибины: АФК «Система» и телекоммуникационные структуры «Альфа-групп», с нуля построившие свой технологический бизнес, активно внедряются на рынки ближнего и дальнего зарубежья.

Источник: Ведомости, 15.02.06

Lesson 22
Macroeconomic Theories

Read and translate the text and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

The Greatest Economist of the 20th Century: John Maynard Keynes

John M. Keynes is the world-famous author of The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, published in 1936.

In Keynes’s theory, macro-level trends can overwhelm the micro-level behavior of individuals. Instead of the economic process being based on continuous improvements in potential output, Keynes asserted the importance of the aggregate demand for goods as the driving factor. He argued that government policies could be used to promote demand at a macro level, and to fight unemployment and deflation.

Keynes stated that there was no strong automatic tendency for output and employment to move toward full employment levels. This conflicts with the principles of classical economics, and the supply-side economics, which assume a general tendency towards equilibrium in a restrained money creation economy.

Keynes questioned two of the dominant pillars of economic theory: the need for a gold standard, and the Say’s Law which stated that decreases in demand would only cause price declines, rather than affecting real output and employment.

It was his experience with the Treaty of Versailles that pushed him to break with previous theory. His book The Economic Consequences of the Peace (1920) recounted the general economics of the Treaty and the individuals involved in making it. The book established him as an economist who had the practical skills to influence policymakers. Keynes developed the idea of monetary policy as something separate from maintaining currency against a fixed peg. He believed that economic systems would not automatically right themselves to attain «the optimal level of production». He used to say «In the long run, we are all dead,» implying that it doesn’t matter that optimal production levels are attained in the long run, because it’ll be a very long run indeed.

In the late 1920s, the world economic system began to break down, after the shaky recovery that followed World War I. Critics of the gold standard, market self-correction, and production-driven paradigms of economics moved to the fore. Dozens of different schools contended for influence. Some pointed to the USSR as a successful centrally-planned economy; others pointed to the alleged success of fascism in Italy.

Keynes stepped into this chaos and promised not to institute revolution but to save capitalism. He circulated a simple thesis: there were more factories and transportation networks than could be used at the current ability of individuals to pay and the problem was on the demand side.

Keynes and the Classics

Keynes explained the level of output and employment in the economy as being determined by effective demand. In a reversal of Say’s Law, Keynes in essence argued that «man creates his own supply,» up to the limit set by full employment.

In «classical» economic theory, adjustments in prices would automatically make demand tend to the full employment level. Keynes, pointing to the sharp fall in employment and output in the early 1930s, argued that whatever the theory, this self-correcting process had not happened.

Wages and Spending

Even in the worst years of the Depression, the classical theory defined economic collapse as simply a lost incentive to produce. Mass unemployment was caused only by high and rigid real wages. The proper solution was to cut wages.

To Keynes, the determination of wages is more complicated. He argued that it is not realbut nominal wages that are set in negotiations between employers and workers. It is not a barter relationship. First, nominal wage cuts would be difficult to put into effect because of laws and wage contracts. Even classical economists admitted that these exist; unlike Keynes, they advocated abolishing minimum wages, trade unions, and long-term contracts, increasing labor-market flexibility. However, to Keynes, people will resist nominal wage reductions, even without unions, until they see other wages falling and a general drop of prices.

He also argued that to boost employment, real wages had to go down: nominal wages would have to fall more than prices. However, it would reduce consumer demand, so that the aggregate demand for goods would drop. This would in turn reduce business sales revenues and expected profits. Investment in new plant and equipment would then become more risky. Instead of raising business expectations, wages cuts could make matters much worse. If wages and prices were falling, people would start to expect them to fall. This could make the economy spiral downward as those who had money would wait as falling prices made it more valuable – rather than spending.

Excessive Saving

To Keynes, excessive saving, i.e. saving beyond planned investment, was a serious problem encouraging recession, even depression. Excessive saving results if investment falls due to falling consumer demand, over-investment in earlier years, or pessimistic business expectations, and if saving does not immediately fall in step.

The classical economists argued that interest rates would fall due to the excess supply of «loanable funds». The first diagram from The General Theory shows this process. Assume that fixed investment in plant and equipment falls from «old I» to «new I» (step a). Step b: the resulting excess of saving causes interest-rate cuts, abolishing the excess supply: so again we have saving (S) equal to investment. The interest-rate fall prevents that of production and employment.

Keynes argued against this laissez faire response. The graph shows his argument, assuming again that fixed investment falls (step A). First, saving does not fall much as interest rates fall, since the income and substitution effects of falling rates go in conflicting directions. Second, since planned investment in plant and equipment is mostly based on long-term expectations of future profitability, that spending does not rise much as interest rates fall. So S and I are drawn as inelastic in the graph.

Given the inelasticity of both demand and supply, a large interest-rate fall is needed to close the saving/investment gap. As drawn, this requires a negative interest rate at equilibrium (where the new I line would intersect the old S line). However, this negative interest rate is not necessary to Keynes’s argument.

Third, Keynes argued that saving and investment are not the main determinants of interest rates. Instead, the supply of and the demand for money determine interest rates in the short run. Neither change quickly in response to excessive saving to allow fast interest-rate adjustment.

Finally, because of fear of capital losses on assets besides money, Keynes suggested that there might be a «liquidity trap» setting a floor under which interest rates cannot fall. (In this trap, bond holders, fearing rises in interest rates (because rates are so low), fear capital losses on their bonds and thus try to sell them to attain money (liquidity).) Even economists who reject this liquidity trap now realize that nominal interest rates cannot fall below zero. The equilibrium suggested by the new I line and the old S line cannot be reached, so that excess saving persists.

Even if this «trap» does not exist, there is a fourth element to Keynes’s critique. Saving involves not spending all of one’s income. It means insufficient demand for business output, unless it is balanced by other sources of demand. Thus, excessive saving corresponds to an unwanted accumulation of inventories. This pile-up of unsold goods and materials encourages businesses to decrease both production and employment. This in turn lowers people’s incomes – and saving, causing a leftward shift in the S line in the diagram. For Keynes, the fall in income did most of the job ending excessive saving and allowing the loanable funds market to attain equilibrium. Instead of interest-rate adjustment solving the problem, a recession does so.

Whereas the classical economists assumed that the level of output and income was constant at any one time (except for short-lived deviations), Keynes saw this as the key variable that adjusted to equate saving and investment.

Finally, a recession undermines the business incentive to engage in fixed investment. With falling incomes and demand for products, the desired demand for factories and equipment (not to mention housing) will fall. This accelerator effect would shift the I line to the left again. This recreates the problem of excessive saving and encourages the recession to continue.

Active Fiscal Policy

The classicals wanted to balance the government budget through slashing expenditures or raising taxes. To Keynes, this would exacerbate the underlying problem: following either policy would raise saving and thus lower the demand for products and labor. Keynes saw H. Hoover’s June 1932 tax hike as making the Great Depression worse.

Keynes’s ideas influenced Franklin D. Roosevelt’s view that insufficient buying power caused the Depression. Something similar to Keynesian expansionary policies had been applied earlier by both social-democratic Sweden and Nazi Germany. But to many the true success of Keynesian policy can be seen at the onset of World War II, which provided a kick to the world economy, removed uncertainty, and forced the rebuilding of destroyed capital. Keynesian ideas became almost official in social-democratic Europe after the war and in the U.S. in the 1960s.

Keynes’s theory suggested that active government policy could be effective in managing the economy. Keynes advocated counter-cyclical fiscal policies, that is policies which acted against the tide of the business cycle: deficit spending when a nation’s economy suffers from recession or when recovery is long-delayed and unemployment is persistently high – and the suppression of inflation in boom times by either increasing taxes or reducing government outlays. He argued that governments should solve short-term problems rather than waiting for market forces to do it.

This contrasted with the classical and neoclassical economic analysis of fiscal policy. Deficit spending could stimulate production. But to these schools, there was no reason to believe that this stimulation would outrun the side-effects that «crowd out» private investment: first, it would increase the demand for labor and raise wages, hurting profitability. Second, a government deficit increases the stock of government bonds, reducing their market price and encouraging high interest rates, making it more expensive for business to finance fixed investment. Thus, efforts to stimulate the economy would be self-defeating. Worse, it would be shifting resources away from productive use by the private sector to wasteful use by the government.

The Keynesian response is that such fiscal policy is only appropriate when unemployment is persistently high. In that case, crowding out is minimal. Further, private investment can be «crowded in»: fiscal stimulus raises the market for business output, raising cash flow and profitability, spurring business optimism. To Keynes, this accelerator effect meant that government and business could be complements rather than substitutes in this situation. Second, as the stimulus occurs, GDP rises, raising the amount of saving, helping to finance the increase in fixed investment. Finally, government outlays need not always be wasteful: government investment in public goods that will not be provided by profit-seekers will encourage the private sector’s growth. That is, government spending on basic research, public health, education, and infrastructure could help the long-term growth of potential output.

In Keynes’ theory, there must be significant slack in the labor market before fiscal expansion is justified. It is important to distinguish between mere deficit spending and Keynesianism. Governments had long used deficits to finance wars. But Keynesian policy is not merely spending: it is the proposition that sometimes the economy needs active fiscal policy. Keynesianism recommends counter-cyclical policies, for example raising taxes when there is abundant demand-side growth to cool the economy and to prevent inflation, even if there is a budget surplus. Classical economics argues that one should cut taxes when there are budget surpluses, to return money to private hands. Because deficits grow during recessions, classicals call for cuts in outlays. Keynes encourages increased deficits during downturns. In the Keynesian view, the classical policy exacerbates the business cycle. In the classical view, Keynesianism is almost literally fiscal madness.

The «Multiplier Effect»

The «Keynesian multiplier» has important implications for policy. The effect on demand of any exogenous increase in spending, such as an increase in government outlays is a multiple of that increase – until potential is reached. Thus, a government could stimulate a great deal of new production with a modest outlay: if the government spends, the people who receive this money then spend most on consumption goods and save the rest. This extra spending allows businesses to hire more people and pay them, which in turn allows a further increase in consumer spending. This process continues. At each step, the increase in spending is smaller than in the previous step, so that the multiplier process tapers off and allows the attainment of equilibrium.

Source: Wikepedia

Essential Vocabulary

1. macro-level – макроуровень

2. micro-level – микроуровень

3. aggregate demand – совокупный спрос

4. goods n – товар, изделие (в основном продукты производства)

5. deflation n – дефляция

6.supply-side economics – экономика предложения

7. gold standard – золотой стандарт

8. treaty n – договор

9. currency n – валюта

10. peg n – база, ориентир, точка отсчета

pegging n – привязка, индексация

peg v – привязывать, индексировать

11. centrally-planned economy – плановая экономика

12. effective demand – эффективный (фактический) спрос

13.interest rate – процентная ставка

14. real wage – реальный уровень зарплаты (зарплата с поправкой на инфляцию)

15. nominal wage – номинальная зарплата

16. barter n – бартер

barter v – осуществлять бартерный обмен

17. trade (labor) union – профсоюз

18. depression n – депрессия (период вялой деловой активности)

19. laissez faire – экономическая доктрина, проповедующая минимальное вмешательство государства в экономику

20. inelasticity n – неэластичность (спроса или предложения)

inelastic a – неэластичный

elasticity n – эластичность (спроса или предложения)

elastic a – эластичный

21. liquidity trap – «ликвидная ловушка»

22. floor n – пол (зд. торговый зал биржи, торговые площади магазина или самый низкий уровень цен либо процентной ставки)

23. bond holder – владелец облигаций

24. deviation n – отклонение

deviate v – отклоняться

25. accelerator effect – эффект акселератора (ускорителя) (взаимосвязь темпов экономического роста и уровня инвестиций)

26. tax (price) hike – повышение налогов (цен)

27. buying (purchasing) power – покупательная способность

28. expansionary policy – политика экономического роста

29. counter-cyclical – антициклический

30. deficit spending – дефицитное расходование

31. outlay n – расходы, ассигнования, затраты, издержки

32. crowding out n – вытеснение

crowd out v – вытеснять

33. government bond – правительственная облигация

34.public goods – товары и услуги, которые служат пользе всех и являются общедоступными

35. slack n – зазор, люфт, спад (деловой активности), простой; наличие избыточных производственных мощностей, резерв

slack a – застойный, вялый, бездействующий

36. demand-side – на стороне спроса

37. cooling n – сдерживание (экономики), замедление, охлаждение

38. multiplier n – мультипликатор

multiplier a – мультипликативный

39. exogenous a – экзогенный, внешний

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. What is the most famous book by John M.Keynes? 2. What is the driving factor of the economic process according to Keynes? 3. In what way did Keynes’ theory conflict with the supply-side economics? 4. How did Keynes explain the level of output and employment in the economy? 5. How did Keynes regard the determination of wages? 6. What was the problem with excessive savings in Keynes’ views? 7. What is the «liquidity trap»? 8. How did Keynes justify the active government policy? 9. Why did the classic economists regard Keynesianism as «fiscal madness»? 10. What is Keynesian multiplier?

Exercise 2*. Find terms in the text that match definitions given below and make sentences of your own with each term.

1. the theory that excessive central government borrowing on capital markets will consume funds otherwise available for private investment

2. notes and coins that are the current medium of exchange in a country

3. a form of international exchange practiced until the 1930s. Each country’s national currency was linked by a fixed rate to gold and varied in volume with the amount of gold held

4. a fall in the purchasing power of money, reflected in a persistent increase in the general level of prices as measured by the retail price index

5. the proportion of a sum of money that is paid over a specified period of time in payment for its loan

6. the act of placing monetary resources into the creation of assets in the manufacturing and service sectors of the economy

7. a monetary situation in which interest rates fall so low that only a rise can be anticipated. Since any rise would only depress the price of bonds, the compulsion to remain in cash persists. At this point, no increase in the money supply can increase people’s preference for cash or therefore have any effect on incomes.

8. the quantity of money in circulation in economy

9. to maintain a national currency at a fixed exchange value in terms of another

10. income not spent on consumption

Exercise 3. You are a journalist writing for Fortune and you are asked to interview John Kenneth Galbraith. Make a dialogue between these two individuals using the following briefing materials.

John K. Galbraith (born October 15, 1908) is a widely read 20th century economist, from the American Institutional Economics school. The Canadian-born author of four dozen books and over one thousand articles was on the faculty of Harvard University from 1934 to 1975. He served in the administrations of Franklin Roosevelt, Harry Truman, John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson. In 1961, Kennedy appointed him ambassador to India, where he served until 1963.

Galbraith is considered something of an iconoclast by many economists because he uses non-technical political economy instead of mathematical modeling. Additionally certain economists have alleged that he does not base his conclusions on solid research. In some of his books on economic topics he describes ways in which economic theory does not always mesh with real life.

In American Capitalism: The Concept of Countervailing Power published in 1952, Galbraith outlined how the American economy would be managed by a triumvirate of big business, big labor, and an activist government. He contrasted this with the previous pre-depression era where big business had relatively free rein over the economy.

In his most famous work, The Affluent Society (1958), Galbraith outlined his view that to be successful the United States would need to make large investments in items such as highways and education using funds from general taxation. He also criticized the assumption that continually increasing material production is a sign of economic and societal health. The Affluent Society contributed (given that Galbraith had the ear of President Kennedy) to the «war on poverty», the government spending policy first brought on by the administrations of Kennedy and Johnson.

In The New Industrial State (1967), Galbraith argues that very few industries in the United States fit the model of perfect competition. A third related work was Economics and the Public Purpose (1973), in which he expanded on these themes by discussing, among other issues, the subservient role of women in the unrewarded management of ever-greater consumption, and the role of the technostructure in the large firm in influencing perceptions of sound economic policy aims.

In A Short History of Financial Euphoria (1990), he traces financial bubbles through several centuries, and cautions that what currently seems to be «the next great thing» may not be that great and may have quite irrational factors promoting it.

Source: Wikipedia

Exercise 4*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

Milton Friedman

Milton Friedman (born July 31, 1912) is a US economist, known primarily for his work on………………., economic history, statistics, and for his advocacy of…….. capitalism. In 1976, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded him the……. Prize in……. «for his achievements in the fields of……. analysis, monetary history and theory and for his demonstration of the complexity of……. policy».

After working for the…….. government and for Columbia University, he received a Ph.D. from that…….. in 1946. He then served as Professor of Economics at the University of Chicago from 1946 to 1976, where he……… significantly to the intellectual tradition of the so-called……. of economics. Since 1977, Friedman has been……. with the Hoover Institution.

Friedman is widely regarded as the leading proponent of the…….. school of economic thought. He maintains that there is a close and stable link between inflation and the………, mainly that the……… of inflation is to be regulated by controlling the amount of money poured into the national economy by the……. He rejects the use of……… as a tool of demand management, and he holds that the government’s role in the guidance of the economy should be severely…….. Friedman wrote extensively on the……… arguing that it had been caused by an ordinary……… whose duration and seriousness were greatly increased by the subsequent…….. of the money supply caused by the misguided policies of the directors of the Federal Reserve. Friedman also argued for the cessation of government………. in currency markets, as well as promoting the practice of………. exchange rates.

Friedman made headlines by proposing a……… to replace the existing…….. system and then opposing the…… to implement it because it merely supplemented the existing system rather than replacing it.

Friedman visited Chile in 1975 during the military dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet. Invited by a private………, he gave a series of lectures on economics. Several professors from the University of Chicago became……… to the Chilean government. Friedman was accused of supporting a regime whose policies included torture and the killing of political opponents.

Critics have remarked that Chile’s dictatorship used its power to implement……., thus contradicting the……. that Friedman claims exists between free markets and political freedom. Friedman defends his role in Chile on the grounds that the move towards open market policies not only improved the……. in Chile but also contributed to the softening of Pinochet’s rule and to its eventual replacement by a democratic government in 1990.

Source: Wikepidia

Terms:

Great Depression, freely floating, advisors, phenomenon, Federal Reserve Bank, bill, stabilization, contraction, intervention, macroeconomics, Nobel, foundation, free market policies, institution, relationship, microeconomics, laissez-faire, Economics, consumption, federal, contributed, affiliated, monetarist, money supply, restricted, financial shock, negative income tax, welfare, economic situation, fiscal policy, Chicago School

Exercise 5. Translate into English.

Уроки экономики: Переделать страну

Разговоры о роли институтов в функционировании экономики сегодня весьма популярны как среди академических экономистов, политиков, реформаторов, так и в широком обывательском сообществе. Если до недавнего времени панацеей от неэффективной работы экономической системы считались «правильные цены» («Установите правильные цены, – говорили неоклассики, – и все сразу начнет работать эффективно»), то теперь практически повсеместно заговорили о «правильных институтах». Но как определить, какой институт «правильный», или, иными словами, эффективный? Имеет ли вообще смысл такое понятие? Действительно ли все дело в правильных институтах? С какими критериями следует подходить к их оценке?

Правильные институты

Институты суть правила, которые дополнены механизмами принуждения к их исполнению. Можно рассматривать институт как структуру, минимизирующую транзакционные издержки (transaction costs), и оценивать его по этому критерию. Однако институт способен обеспечивать локальную минимизацию транзакционных издержек и вместе с тем создавать глобальную неэффективность (подобным свойством обладает, например, институт бартерного обмена). Можно анализировать, сколь эффективно институт помогает решить или по крайней мере смягчить проблему ограниченной рациональности. Так, предприятия с разной формой организации бизнеса по-разному справляются с последствиями ограниченной рациональности своих работников. Аналогично и различные институты с разной степенью эффективности могут добиваться смягчения последствий ограниченной рациональности.

Однако неоднозначность трактовки пользы института имеет место при любых критериях. Скажем, Франклина Рузвельта, который ввел в США систему социального страхования, одни считают гением, спасшим страну, а другие – недалеким злодеем, совершившим гибельный для нее шаг. Институт государственной собственности тоже вызывал и вызывает горячие споры. Может ли государство быть эффективным собственником? Нужно ли ему оставаться владельцем частот вещания и естественных монополий? На эти и многие другие вопросы есть разные ответы и, как следствие, разная государственная политика.

Чем сложнее институт, тем менее однозначен вектор его влияния на общество. Попытки упорядочить всю систему вкупе противоречили бы элементарным законам физики. Если вам кажется, что все довольны нововведением, вы просто учитываете не все факторы. Соответственно, и конкретным институтом не могут быть довольны абсолютно все. Какой бы институт мы ни взяли – систему высшего образования, обязательную вакцинацию новорожденных, Уголовно-процессуальный кодекс или правила дорожного движения, – всегда найдутся люди, которых не устраивает его устройство.

Итак, определить универсальные критерии качества, которые были бы применимы к отдельным институтам, практически невозможно. Необходим анализ экономической системы в целом, и о правильных институтах можно говорить только тогда, когда само общество устроено правильно.

Источник: Ведомости, 13.02.06. (отрывок)

Lesson 23
Macroeconomic Landscape

Read and translate the texts and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

U.S. Fiscal Imbalance Biggest Since 1959

Federal tax revenues relative to the overall economy have reached their lowest level since Dwight Eisenhower was president, while government spending has climbed to the highest point since Bill Clinton declared the era of big government over.

The Congressional Budget Office closed the books on the fiscal year that ended September 30, 2003, by issuing a report that portrayed the federal government as being badly off even as the nation’s economy shows increasing signs of recovery. Bush administration claims that mounting deficits are the result of the economic downturn, and that a recovery would begin to remedy the government’s fiscal imbalance.

The federal budget deficit for fiscal 2003 soared to $374 billion, easily surpassing the previous record of $290 billion in 1992.

The actual 2003 deficit was, however, lower than the $401 billion forecast by CBO in August, and Bolten pointed to other factors that he called «modest good news». Tax receipts, especially corporate taxes, came in stronger than expected this fall, while spending on welfare payments and unemployment benefits were lower than forecast – all signs that the economic recovery is helping the government’s bottom line.

But CBO director Douglas Holtz-Eakin warned there are still far too many questions about the recent jump in tax receipts to conclude the government’s fiscal fortunes have turned.

«We still have the same outlook for the future,» he said, pointing to CBO’s August projections of deficits totaling $1.4 trillion from 2004 to 2013.

As a snapshot of government’s fiscal health, 2003 prompted historic comparisons. A sluggish economy and three successive tax cuts pushed budget receipts to $1.78 trillion, $70 billion below 2002 levels. Expressed as percentage of the economy, the federal tax take contracted to 16.6%, the lowest level since 1959.

Just last year, corporate tax receipts declined by 11.1%, to 1.2% of the nation’s GDP. That is the lowest level since 1983. Since they peaked in 2000, corporate tax payments have plunged nearly 29%.

Individual income taxes fell by 7.5% last year and are off 21% from their 2000 peak. Only Medicare and Social Security taxes have continued to climb since the boom years of the 1990s, and that money is now financing other parts of the government.

«It is revenue collection which dropped off a cliff,» Bolten said.

But federal spending – pumped up by war and rising health care costs – has been on the opposite trajectory. Spending rose by $146 billion over 2002, or 7.3%, to $2.16 trillion. In 2003, spending equaled 20.3% of the economy, the highest level since 1996, when Clinton hailed the end of big government.

And those numbers may actually understate the surge in spending since historically low interest rates have lowered the cost of interest payments on the $3.9 trillion federal debt held by the public, the CBO said. Excluding the fall in interest payments, federal spending rose 8.9% last year.

But the real driver on the spending side was the military, which consumed $389 billion in 2003, a 17.2% increase in a year. That was the fastest growth rate in 20 years, and more than double the average 7% growth in non-defense programs.

With Congress considering an $87 billion spending package for Iraq and Afghanistan, the spending figures are sure to rise. Bolten said he is still expecting the deficit to top $500 billion in 2003, even with a brightening economic picture. Strong economic growth anticipated by 2004 will not produce a surge in tax receipts until the following year, he said.

Critics of the president’s fiscal stewardship are not backing off. Bush’s $1.7 trillion in tax cuts will really begin taking a toll on government finances toward the end of the decade, when forecasters expect the economy to be rolling. By 2010, the vanguard of Baby Boom retirees will have begun driving up Social Security and Medicare expenses by nearly 7% a year.

The 2003 numbers are a «distraction compared to the big story of where this is all heading,» said Kent Conrad, the senior Democrat on the Senate Budget Committee, «a fiscal crisis unlike any we’ve ever seen.»

Source: Washington Post, 20 October 2003 (abridged)

U.S.: Businesses Are Betting On A Happy New Year

Businesses appear to be casting off their summer caution, and that’s good news for 2005. Earlier this year, the oil shock and election uncertainty clouded the outlook, causing companies to delay some of their inventory-building, capital projects, and hiring. Now, companies seem to like what they see, especially the rebound in consumer spending and the lower dollar, which will provide a boost to exports and profits.

Corporate America is gearing up once again. Just look at the rising trends in industrial orders and output, suggesting that companies are responding to the stronger pace of demand. Companies appear to be interested in expanding their operations, not just in replacing obsolete equipment. Growing payrolls are another key sign that businesses are willing to expand. All this is supporting economic growth this quarter, and the momentum should carry over into the new year.

The reason businesses are increasingly willing to shell out more for equipment and payrolls is evident in the details of the Commerce Dept.’s update on Q3 real GDP. Commerce says the economy grew at a 3.9% annual rate over the summer, instead of the 3.7% pace originally reported. And while the overall revision to the past was small, the underlying data show a sharp upward shift in prospects for the future.

Spending in all sectors grew at a 4.9% annual rate, but businesses built up their inventories by less than estimated. With inventories lean, output will have to be boosted to meet rising demand. All this implies further growth in jobs, income, and spending.

This virtuous cycle explains why many companies are starting to look at expansion plans. The Business Roundtable’s CEO Economic Outlook Survey shows that executives expect the economy to grow at a healthy pace in the first half of 2005. 50% of the CEOs expect their companies to increase capex in the next six months.

The upturn in capital spending got its start when companies began to replace aging, short-lived tech equipment. During the first two years after the recession ended, spending on IT gear accounted for 70% of the growth in overall equipment outlays.

In the past year, with industrial operating rates rising and with demand strengthening, businesses boosted their spending for more traditional machinery and equipment. Q3 business outlays for all types of equipment and software increased at a sturdy 17.2% annual rate, faster than the 14.9% pace first reported. Outlays for IT equipment slowed last quarter, but spending on nontech items accelerated. Industrial machinery was up 27.2%; transportation equipment soared 35.4%, the largest quarterly gain in nearly six years.

That trend is continuing this quarter. Machinery orders posted a strong gain in October, while transit equipment saw a small rise. Total orders for capital goods, excluding aircraft, were reduced by 3.6%, but that followed a 5.2% jump in September.

Despite the recent interest-rate hikes, financing this spending won’t be a problem. Corporations have enough cash flow to cover all their capital outlays. True, profits will grow more slowly as costs rise, but that’s compared with the superstrong pace of recent quarters. Q3 profits from current production fell 2.4% from the second quarter, and the growth from the previous year slowed to 8.4%, vs. 19% in the second quarter. But hurricane-related payouts by insurance companies and uninsured losses subtracted nearly $80 billion from the total. Excluding that, profits last quarter would have grown 16% from the year before.

A more critical question mark for capital spending is the yearend expiration of the 50% «bonus depreciation» allowance granted companies in the 2003 tax package.

Companies have to be pleased by the way consumers have bounced back from the initial impact of the oil shock. Commerce now says consumer spending grew at a 5.1% annual rate last quarter. Clearly, higher energy prices have hit households. But important offsets are coming from better job growth, which is boosting incomes, and sizable gains in household wealth, which is lifting borrowing power.

Last quarter’s spending increase is a reminder that consumers’ actions don’t always line up with how they say they feel. The index of consumer confidence has fallen steadily since July. In November it slipped to 90.5 from 92.9 in October. And for the second month in a row, households said they have diminished expectations for the future. But October non-auto retail sales were strong, and the holiday shopping season appears off to a decent start.

The continued upbeat trend in demand, the ongoing rise in capacity utilization, and the excellent financial condition of corporations all support the notion of a positive outlook for capital spending. Capital spending and job growth have always moved in tandem. Thus, the economy is most likely on its way to a happy new year.

Source: Business Week (online), Dec 13, 2004 (abridged)

The Rush to Invest in Russia

It’s official: Russia is a magnet for money. For the first time in its post-Soviet history, Russia in 2005 attracted more private capital than it exported. The capital inflow is a sign of the huge appetite for Russia among foreign investors and lenders, who are now pouring more money than ever into Russian loans, securities, acquisitions, and greenfield investments.

True, last year’s net private capital inflow was just $300 million – less than 0.1% of GDP. China, by comparison, logged inflows equal to 6% of GDP in 2004. Still, Russia’s results were much better than government forecasts, which earlier last year anticipated a net outflow of up to $10 billion.

The unprecedented surplus represents a dramatic turnaround from the days when money used to leak out of Russia like a sieve. Net private-sector outflows averaged around $20 billion a year during the late 1990s, a sign that neither local nor foreign investors could be induced to park their cash in a country infamous for its political and financial instability.

«Impressive turnaround». Even the recovery of the Russian economy after 2000 didn’t immediately stem the hemorrhage. True, by 2003, the annual net outflow had fallen to just $1.9 billion. But then came the notorious Yukos affair. Investors were horrified, and capital flight shot up again, to $8 billion in 2004.

The latest figures are a sign that foreign investors have recovered their nerve. «It’s an impressive turnaround, given fears of a worsening following Yukos. The country and business shrugged that off, and people are investing relatively happily,» says Al Breach, research director at Brunswick UBS.

A key factor driving last year’s surge was the continued strong performance of the Russian economy. GDP grew by 6.4% last year, buoyed by record high oil prices. Rising tax revenues from energy exports also mean that the government’s finances are impressively healthy. Last year the government ran a budget surplus equal to 7.5% of GDP. The improvement in Russia’s public finances prompted international credit rating agencies to upgrade the country to investment grade, which has added to Russia’s investment attractiveness.

Foreign loans. So where is all the money going? The Central Bank’s data show that loans to Russian companies accounted for the bulk of the inflows. These were worth some $39.4 billion, up from $16.2 billion in 2004. Russian banks, too, were active in borrowing abroad, raising some $18 billion, or $5.3 billion more than they invested overseas. In comparison, portfolio investment amounted to just $3.1 billion – still a big improvement from $800 million in 2004.

The growing share of loans could be grounds for caution. Although a healthy sign of bankers’ confidence in Russian borrowers, bank lending generally brings fewer benefits to a recipient country than other forms of investment, and may even be risky if debts get out of hand. What’s more, notes MDM’s economist Peter Westin, the surge in foreign borrowing partly reflects the weaknesses of Russia’s own underdeveloped banking and financial systems.

More worrying than the build up of debt is that much of the new loans are going to state companies rather than to the private sector. Last year Gazprom took out a mammoth $13.1 billion loan from a consortium of Western banks in order to finance its acquisition of Sibneft. Likewise, state oil company Rosneft borrowed $6 billion from state banks, indirectly financed from abroad, to fund its controversial purchase of Yukos’ main production unit.

Strengthening government. That’s why not all Russians are impressed by the healthy balance-of-payments data. Skeptical local newspapers argue that foreign borrowing is being used to finance creeping renationalization of the Russian economy. Russia’s finance ministry has also criticized the growing appetite of state companies for foreign loans. Last year finance minister Alexei Kudrin called for caps on the amount that state companies could borrow abroad.

A more positive indicator of foreign investor sentiment towards Russia is foreign direct investment (FDI). FDI was up by 38% to $16.7 billion. That’s a far cry from the days, prior to 2003, when Russia managed a meager FDI trickle of $4 billion each year.

With so much hard currency now flowing into Russia the government has been able to dramatically improve its financial position. Last year it repaid some $21.3 billion in foreign debt, while the Central Bank’s forex reserves jumped by $61.5 billion, or 51%. This remarkable improvement in the country’s public finances is one reason why Russia watchers see few negative clouds on the immediate horizon. Barring a spectacular upset, such as a dramatic fall in international oil prices, Russia could well prove to be an even bigger magnet for foreign investment this year.

Source: Business Week (online), Jan. 20, 2006 (abridged)

Essential Vocabulary

1. tax revenues – налоговые доходы

2. Congressional Budget Office (CBO) – Бюджетный комитет Конгресса

3. close the books – закрытие бухгалтерских книг к концу периода

4. fiscal year (FY) – фискальный, деловой или финансовый год

5. budget deficit – дефицит бюджета

6. tax receipts – налоговые поступления

7. corporate tax – корпорационный налог

8. sluggish a – застойный, вялый

9. individual income tax – подоходный налог на физических лиц

10. Medicare – государственная программа бесплатной медицинской помощи престарелым

11. Social Security tax – налог на социальную защиту

12. interest payments – процентные платежи

13. federal debt – государственный долг

14. government (public) finances – государственные финансы

15.inventory building – наращивание запасов

16. industrial order – промышленный заказ

17. pace n – скорость, темп

18. obsolescence n – устаревание, износ

obsolete a – устаревший

19.payroll n – общая сумма денег, которые предприятие регулярно выплачивает сотрудникам; ведомость на получение зарплаты

20. momentum n – импульс, движущая сила, толчок; темп

21. Commerce Department – Министерство торговли США

22. update n – обновление, модернизация, изменение в соответствии с новыми данными

update v – обновлять, модернизировать, изменять в соответствии с новыми данными

23. upward (downward) – направленный или движущийся вверх (вниз)

24. capital expenditures (capex) – капитальные расходы (на приобретение или реновацию основного капитала)

25.capital goods – капитальные товары (средства производства, здания, дороги и др. активы, используемые при производстве других товаров)

26. subtraction n – вычитание

subtract v – вычитать

27. expiration n – окончание, истечение срока

expiry n – окончание, истечение срока

expire v – истекать (о сроке), кончаться, терять силу (о законе и т. п.)

28. depreciation n – снижение стоимости, обесценение, снижение курса, девальвация, амортизация материальных активов

depreciate v – обесцениваться, уменьшаться в стоимости, амортизироваться

29. allowance n – налоговая скидка; денежное содержание; допущение, резерв; скидка с цены

30.tax package – комплекс мероприятий в области налоговой политики

31. household n – семья, домашнее хозяйство

32. consumer confidence index – индекс уверенности потребителя

33. capital inflow – приток капитала

34. greenfield a – новое предприятие, дочерняя компания, создаваемые с нуля; освоение новых территорий

35. capital flight – бегство капитала

36. budget surplus – бюджетный профицит

37. investment attractiveness – инвестиционная привлекательность

39. portfolio investor – портфельный инвестор

portfolio investment – портфельная инвестиция

40. recipient country – принимающая страна

41. balance of payments (ВОР) – платежный баланс; сальдо расчетов по торговле товарами и услугами; движения капиталов

42. creeping (re)nationalization – ползучая (ре)национализация

43. cap n – зд. фиксированный максимум, верхний предел

cap v – зд. устанавливать верхний предел

44. foreign direct investments (FDI) – иностранные прямые инвестиции

45. hard currency – твердая валюта; валюта, пользующаяся доверием, конвертируемая валюта

46. foreign exchange (forex) reserves – валютные запасы

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. What were the US macroeconomic indicators for FY 2003? 2. What was happening to budget receipts in 2003? 3. What were the trends of federal spending? 4. Why is a fiscal crisis anticipated in the US? 5. What were the expectations of the corporate America for 2005? 6. What were the US companies mainly investing in? 7. What was the financial position of corporations in 2004? 8. What were the consumer perceptions and expectations for 2005? 9. What was the situation with capital flows in Russia in 2005? 10. How did Russia’s economy perform in 2005? 11. Where were the capital inflows mainly directed? 12. What are the problems inherent in this trend? 13. How is the role of the government in Russia’s economy evolving? 14. What is the financial position of the Russian government?

Exercise 2*. Find words in the texts that describe the process of increasing/decreasing and make sentences of your own using them.

Exercise 3*. Find terms in the text that match definitions given below and make sentences of your own with each term.

1. the purchase of fixed assets, expenditure on trade investments or acquisitions of other businesses and expenditure on current assets

2. the reduction in the value of an asset through wear and tear; а reduction in the value of a currency in terms of gold or other currencies in a free market

3. the total amount of goods, services and financial transactions between one country and the rest of the world

4. a bankers’ bank at the center of a country’s monetary system

5. a tax levied on the assessable profits of a company

6. financial year

7. investment in the foreign operations of a business

8. the money value of the goods and services produced by the economy in a period of time

9. stocks of raw materials, work in progress and finished goods

10. the provision of money for public expenditure by taxation and borrowing

Exercise 4*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

The Curse of $50 a Barrel

With oil prices hovering above $50 a barrel, Russia is raking in……. This year oil exports are……. to earn Russia $90 billion, up from $14.5 billion in 1998. With so much……. pouring in, and oil prices way above historical……., it’s reasonable to think economists would be…… about Russia’s economy. They’re not.

No one is more gloomy than President Vladimir V. Putin’s economic…… Andrei Illarionov, who recently coined the term «Venezuelaization» to describe the fate he fears awaits Russia’s economy. The growing role of the state in Russia’s……. adds to the risk of economic……… Illarionov is not alone in warning that, unless properly managed, Russia’s oil……. could end up doing more harm than good. Economists warn of the «resource curse», the surprising but statistically valid theory that, more often than not, abundance of……. damages a country’s economic…….

One concern is that, like many oil-rich countries before it, Russia may decide to blow its oil……. on profligate government……… risking an unpleasant fiscal and economic…….. when oil prices fall. To guard against that temptation, Russia wisely created a……. last year. But political pressure is growing to use the rapidly……. fund, already worth $28 billion, to……. expenditures. Under the original plan…….. on oil that fetched more than $20 a barrel were funneled into the Fund, but in April the Cabinet decided to……. that…… to $27, releasing an extra $10 billion for the budget this year.

The revised policy toward the Stabilization Fund is just the latest sign that advocates of tight……., led by Finance Minister Alexei Kudrin, are losing ground to Prime Minister Mikhail Fradkov and other champions of more……. policies. In January, Moscow was forced to hike pensions and other social…….. by $7 billion – around 1% of…….. – to sweeten the pill of controversial social-benefit reforms that were designed to replace in-kind benefits with……..

Finance minister Kudrin has publicly slammed recent moves to weaken the Stabilization Fund and loosen……. True, Russia’s…… look so strong and oil prices so firm that the risk from higher spending seems manageable. In 2004, Russia ran a……. equivalent to 4.1% of GDP.

Looser fiscal policy will boost……… which already shows signs of spiking…… In the first quarter of 2005…….. rose 5.3% from the previous quarter, jeopardizing the government’s……. of bringing annual inflation down from 11.7% last year to 8.5% in 2005. Rising costs will……… one other well-known ailment associated with high oil prices, the so-called Dutch Disease, named after Holland’s experience in the 1970s, when a……… currency made it impossible for local…….. to compete. As well as pushing up the…….. of the currency directly, a flood of petrodollars may also undermine manufacturing competitiveness by stoking inflation. In the past year the ruble has risen by 10% against the dollar……. and is forecast to……. even faster in the coming year.

Yet……… problems aren’t even the biggest concerns connected with oil. More serious are the long-term effects of oil riches on a country’s social……. and its political…….. Natural resources generate large……., easy money that fuels corruption and state……… in the economy, as well as often sparking serious political battles among rival……..

Source: Business Week (online), June 20, 2005 (excerpt)

Terms:

GDP, «rents», advisor, interest groups, public finances, value, petrodollars, tax revenues, budget surplus, institutions, threshold, stability, consumer prices, forecast, outlays, accumulating, interference, inflation, manufacturers, in real terms, hard currency, averages, Stabilization Fund, upbeat, oil sector, mismanagement, wealth, natural resources, growth, windfall, spending, crunch, boost, hike, fiscal discipline, populist, cash payments, fiscal policy, upward, target, exacerbate, strengthening, appreciate, macroeconomic

Exercise 5. Translate into English.

Через 10 лет в России будет рай

Если баррель нефти будет стоить $100

К 2016 г. долларовый ВВП России вырастет вшестеро, а индекс РТС – до 8650 пунктов. Такое счастье ждет страну при условии, что нефть будет стоить $100/барр. Помешать этому может только одурманенное нефтедолларами (petrodollars) правительство, предупреждает автор прогноза – экономист Aton Capital Питер Уэстин.

Все больше экономистов склоняются к мысли, что нефть дешеветь уже не будет. Разведанные запасы углеводородов растут медленнее, чем спрос, динамику которого все больше определяют два новых гиганта – Индия и Китай. И хотя промышленность там более энергоемкая (energy intensive), чем в развитых странах, средний китаец потребляет всего 2 барреля нефти в год, а индиец – 1 баррель, или в 25 раз меньше, чем средний американец. Быстрый экономический рост и урбанизация будут только усиливать потребность гигантов в нефти.

Еще весной инвестиционный банк Goldman Sachs предположил, что в 2006 г. баррель Brent может подорожать до $72, а в 2007 г. – до $102. Недавно он поднял долгосрочный прогноз цены нефти с $45/барр. до $60/барр. А Международный валютный фонд при подготовке последнего прогноза развития мировой экономики исходил из гипотезы, что цена на баррель нефти поднимется в 2006 г. с $54,23 до $61,75.

Уэстин решил проверить, как будут обстоять дела в России, если эти ожидания окажутся верными. В докладе «А что если: Россия в 2015 г. при цене нефти $50/барр. и $100/барр.» он спроектировал три сценария развития экономики на ближайшее десятилетие. Если средняя цена нефти вырастет с $60/барр. в 2006 г. до $100/барр. к 2010 г., а затем пять лет кряду не будет дешеветь, страну ждет настоящее процветание. К 2015 г. курс национальной валюты вырастет до 19,9 руб./$, а экспорт почти утроится и достигнет $567 млрд, причем на 70% он будет обеспечен поставками нефти и газа (в 2005 г. – 54%). Доход среднего россиянина увеличится с $273 до $2268 в месяц, а ВВП – с $743 млрд в 2005 г. до $4568 млрд, причем по размеру экономики Россия обгонит Германию и Великобританию, прогнозирует Уэстин. В реальном выражении экономика будет расти на 8,5% в год, что позволит удвоить ВВП к 2012 г. Тогда же мы перегоним Португалию по ВВП на душу населения.

Россия будет в отличной форме и в том случае, если в ближайшее десятилетие нефть будет стоить в среднем $50/барр., уверен Уэстин. ВВП тогда будет расти на «скромные» 5,9% в год, а средний душевой доход за месяц достигнет к 2015 г. $1386. И даже базовый сценарий, рассчитанный на удешевление нефти до $32/барр., обещает рост ВВП на 5% в год и повышение доходов вчетверо, до $1073.

По любому из трех сценариев экономика России останется сырьевой, но «голландская болезнь» не будет ей особенно докучать, надеется Уэстин. Основными двигателями роста станут отрасли, не конкурирующие с импортом, – торговля, строительство, услуги.

Картина может оказаться и не столь радужной – если подведут чиновники. Уэстин поясняет, что в основе всех прогнозов лежит допущение, что правительство будет проводить умеренно реформистскую политику, а не примется тратить деньги направо и налево.

При нефти в $100/барр. сценарий быстрого роста экономики вполне правдоподобен, говорит чиновник Минэкономразвития. Прогнозировать, как страна распорядится свалившимся на нее с неба богатством, невозможно, возражает старший экономист «Уралсиба» Владимир Тихомиров: «Возможно, дорогая нефть приведет только к усилению неравенства, а большинство населения так и не отведает плодов изобилия».

Если нефть будет слишком дорогой, есть опасность, что реформы будут остановлены, предостерегает чиновник Минэкономразвития. К тому же есть риск, что государство не совладает со свалившимся на него богатством и начнет транжирить сверхдоходы. А это подстегнет инфляцию и приведет к всплеску импорта, добавляет экономист «Альфа-банка» Наталия Орлова. По расчетам Уэстина, при цене нефти в $100/барр. в стабфонде к 2016 г. скопится $1,5 трлн, а при $50/барр. – $557 млрд (на 1 августа – $25,3 млрд).

«Уже сейчас объем стабфонда достиг критического уровня, и его дальнейшего безнаказанного роста никто не допустит», – разрушает эти предположения председатель думского комитета по социальной политике «единоросс» Андрей Исаев. «Уже в 2006 г. намечается серьезный поворот к росту расходов бюджета на социальную поддержку населения и инвестиции, а в 2007 г. можно ожидать качественного рывка», – предупреждает он.

Источник: Ведомости, 06.10.05

Lesson 24
Globalization

Read and translate the text and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary

Globalization

Globalization is the worldwide technological, economic and cultural change brought about by expanding facilities for communications and interdependency between isolate cultures. Dramatically increased international trade and finance have established a medium wherin deeper cultural exchanges have taken place, greatly increasing the impact of global issues at the local scale.

In economic context, the term refers to the effects of trade, particularly trade liberalization (or the «free trade»). More broadly, the term refers to the overall integration, and resulting increase in interdependence among global actors.

It is useful to distinguish economic, political, and cultural aspects of globalization, although all three aspects are closely intertwined. The other key aspect of globalization is changes in technology, particularly in transport and communications, which are creating a global village.

«Globalization» can mean:

Globalism that contrasts with economic nationalism and protectionism.

Complex connectivity, where more and more places are being connected in new ways. Arjun Appadurai identified five types of global connectivity:

– Ethnoscapes: movements of people (tourists, immigrants, refugees, and businessmen).

– Financescapes: global flows of money, often driven by interconnected currency markets, stock exchanges, and commodity markets.

– Ideoscapes: the global spread of ideas and political ideologies.

– Mediascapes: the global distribution of media images.

– Technoscapes: the movement of technologies around the globe.

Cultural globalization means attempts to erode the national cultures of Europe, and subsume them into a global culture whose members will be much easier to manipulate through mass media and controlled governments.

Economic globalization refers to four different flows across boundaries: flows of goods/services, people, capital, and technology. The IMF defines globalization as «the growing economic interdependence of countries worldwide through increasing volume and variety of cross-border transactions in goods and services, freer international capital flows, and more rapid and widespread diffusion of technology».

In the field of management, globalization is a marketing or strategy term that refers to the emergence of international markets for consumer goods characterized by similar customer needs and tastes enabling, for example, selling the same cars or soaps or foods with similar ad campaigns to people in different cultures. This usage is contrasted with internationalization which describes the activities of multinational companies dealing across borders in either financial instruments, commodities, or products that are extensively tailored to local markets.

Many use the term «corporate globalization» or «global corporatization» to highlight the impact of MNCs and the use of legal and financial means to circumvent local laws and standards, in order to leverage the labor and services of unequally-developed regions against each other.

The spread of capitalism from developed to developing nations.

Globalization History

It is a history of increasing trade between nations based on stable institutions that allow firms in different nations to exchange goods with minimal friction.

The term «liberalization» means the combination of laissez-faire economic theory with the removal of barriers to the movement of goods. This led to specialization of nations in exports, and the pressure to end protective tariffs and other barriers to trade. The period of the gold standard and liberalization of the 19th century is often called «The First Era of Globalization». Based on the Pax Britannica and the exchange of goods in currencies pegged to specie, this era grew along with industrialization.

The «First Era of Globalization» has broken down in stages beginning with the World War I, and then collapsed with the crisis of the gold standard in the late 1920s and early 1930s’s. Countries that engaged in that era of globalization prospered and goods, capital and labour flowed remarkably freely between nations.

Globalization in the era since World War II has been driven by Trade Negotiation Rounds, originally under the auspices of GATT, which led to a series of agreements to remove restrictions on «free trade». The Uruguay Round led to a treaty to create the World Trade Organization to mediate trade disputes. Other bilateral trade agreements, including Europe’s Maastricht Treaty and the North American Free Trade Agreement, have also been signed aimed at reducing tariffs and barriers to trade.

Characteristics

Globalization has become identified with a number of trends, most of which have developed since World War II.

Economically:

– Increase in international trade at a faster rate than the growth in the world economy.

– Increase in international flow of capital including FDI;

– Erosion of national sovereignty and national borders through international agreements leading to organizations like the WTO and OPEC.

– Development of global financial systems.

– Increase in the share of the world economy controlled by MNCs.

– Increase of economic practices like outsourcing by multinational corporations

Culturally:

– Greater international cultural exchange.

– Spreading of multiculturalism, and better individual access to cultural diversity.

– Greater international travel and tourism.

– Greater immigration.

– Spread of local foods such as pizza and Indian food to other countries.

Development of a global telecommunications infrastructure and greater transborder data flow.

Increases in standards applied globally; e.g. copyright laws and patents.

Formation or development of a set of universal values.

The push for an international criminal court and international justice movements.

Some argue that even terrorism has undergone globalization, with attacks in foreign countries that have no direct relation with the own country.

Barriers to international trade have been considerably lowered since World War II through international agreements such as GATT. Particular initiatives carried out as a result of GATT and the WTO have included:

Promotion of free trade

Of goods:

– Reduction or elimination of tariffs; construction of free trade zones.

– Reduced transportation costs, especially from development of containerization for ocean shipping.

Of capital:

– reduction or elimination of capital controls.

– Reduction, elimination, or harmonization of subsidies for local businesses

Intellectual property restrictions

Anti-globalization

Various aspects of globalization are seen as harmful by public-interest activists as well as strong state nationalists. Critics claim that the results of globalization have not been what was predicted when the attempt to increase free trade began, and that many institutions involved in the system of globalization have not taken the interests of poorer nations, the working class and the environment into account.

Fair trade theorists claim that unrestricted free trade benefits those with more financial leverage (i.e. the rich) at the expense of the poor.

Many activists see globalization as the promotion of a corporatist agenda, which is intent on constricting the freedoms of individuals in the name of profit.

The Southeast Asian financial crises in 1997, that began in the relatively small economy of Thailand but quickly spread to Malaysia, Indonesia, South Korea and eventually was felt all around the world, demonstrated the new risks and volatility in rapidly changing globalized markets. The IMF’s subsequent ‘bailout’ money came with conditions of political change (i.e. government spending limits) attached and was viewed by critics as undermining national sovereignty in neo-colonialist fashion.

Pro-globalization (Globalism)

Supporters of democratic globalization consider that the first phase of globalization, which was market-oriented, should be completed by a phase of building global political institutions representing the will of world citizens.

Supporters of free trade point out that free trade leads to a more efficient allocation of resources, with all countries involved in the trade benefiting from lower prices, higher employment and output.

Libertarians say higher degrees of political and economic freedom produce higher levels of material wealth.

Advocates of globalization say that statistics strongly support globalization:

The percentage of people in developing countries living below US$1 per day has halved in only 20 years.

Life expectancy has almost doubled in the developing world since WWII and is starting to close the gap to the developed world where the improvement has been smaller. Child mortality has decreased in every developing region of the world. Income inequality for the world as a whole is diminishing.

Democracy has increased dramatically from almost no nation with universal suffrage in 1900 to 62.5% of all nations in 2000.

Between 1950 and 1999, global literacy increased from 52% to 81%.

There are similar trends for electricity, cars, radios, and phones per capita.

Measurement of Globalization

To what extent a nation-state or culture is globalized in a particular year has until most recently been measured employing simple proxies like flows of trade, migration, or FDI. A more sophisticated approach to measuring globalization is the recent index calculated by the Swiss think tank KOF. The index measures the three main dimensions of globalization: economic, social, and political. In addition to three indices measuring these dimensions, an overall index of globalization and sub-indices referring to actual economic flows, economic restrictions, data on personal contact, data on information flows, and data on cultural proximity is calculated. According to the index, the world’s most globalized country is the USA, followed by Canada, the United Kingdom, and France. The least globalized countries according to the KOF-index are Burundi, Belize, and Sierra Leone.

Source: Wikepidia

Essential Vocabulary

1. medium n – средство, способ

2. trade liberalization – либерализация торговли

3. free trade – свободная торговля

4. «global village» – «глобальная деревня»

5. protectionism n – протекционизм

protectionist a – протекционистский

6. refugee n – беженец

7. сurrency market – валютный рынок

8. сommodity market – товарный рынок

9. сross-border transaction – международная операция

10. diffusion n – распространение

diffuse v – распространять

11. multinational company (MNC) – многонациональная компания (МНК)

12. tailor v – зд. подгонять под конкретные нужды

13. circumvention n – обман, хитрость, обход

circumvent v – обмануть, обойти, перехитрить, расстроить (планы)

14. protective tariff – протекционистский тариф

15. specie n – золотые и серебряные монеты или слитки

16. auspices n.,pl – эгида, покровительство

17. General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) – Генеральное соглашение о тарифах и торговле (ГАТТ)

18. Uruguay Round – Уругвайский раунд

19. World Trade Organization (WTO) – Всемирная торговая организация

20. Maastricht Treaty – Маастрихтский договор

21. North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) – Североамериканское соглашение о свободной торговле

22. Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) – Организация стран – экспортеров нефти (ОПЕК)

23. copyright law – закон об авторских правах

24. free-trade zone – зона свободной торговли

25. capital control – контроль движения капитала

26. bailout n – спасение, выручка

bail out v – спасать, выручать

27. life expectancy – продолжительность жизни

28. mortality n – смертность

mortal a – смертный; смертельный

29. suffrage n – право голоса, избирательное право, голос (при голосовании)

30.literacy n – грамотность

literate a – грамотный

31. think tank – «мозговой танк»

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. What does globalization mean in general? 2. What aspeсts does the economic globalization include? 3. What does globalization mean in management terms? 4. What are the key milestones in the history of globalization? 5. What economic trends are connected with globalization? 6. What initiatives contributed to the partial removal of barriers to international trade? 7. What are the arguments of the opponents to globalization? 8. What statistical data do advocates of globalization use to support their views? 9. How is globalization measured?

Exercise 2*. Find terms in the text that match definitions given below and make sentences of your own with each term.

1. international trade that is not regulated by tariffs, duties or quotas

2. zone of duty-free foreign trade within the territory of a given state

3. international organization fostering international monetary cooperation through the stabilization of exchange rates, the removal of foreign exchange restrictions and the facilitation of international payments and of international liquidity

4. a treaty signed in 1992 by the member states of the then European Community intended to inaugurate a new stage in the process of European integration

5. a company having production and other facilities in a number of countries outside the nation of origin

6. an agreement for a tariff-free area established between the USA, Canada and Mexico

7. the use of customs tariff and non-tariff policy to protect national economy or ensure unilateral competitive advantages

8. a market in which securities are bought and sold

9. organization set up in 1995 following the conclusion of the Uruguay round of trade negotiations that replaced GATT

Exercise 3. You are a journalist writing for The New York Times and you are to interview an expert from A.T. Kearney who calculated globalization indices for the U.S. and Russia. Make a dialogue between these two individuals using the following briefing materials.

The Schizophrenic United States. The world superpower became a bit more global in 2003, climbing three spots in the globalization index to the 4th position. But a quick glance at the U.S. report card reveals a hit-or-miss performance. The U.S. put up stratospheric numbers in the technology basket, ranking first in the number of Internet hosts and the number of secure servers. But the U.S. lagged far behind in categories including trade, FDI, and treaty commitments. In part, the U.S. lackluster perfomance in economic areas is due to its vibrant domestic market. Because many U.S. producers can focus exclusively on satisfying U.S. consumers, the United States is a less trade-dependent nation than small exporting countries such as Singapore and Ireland. In some ways, the U.S. economy is a world unto itself. The Bush administration often acted similarly aloof in political and diplomatic terms. Consider the United States’ skepticism of international treaty regimes. In 2003, the Bush administration continued to turn up its nose at a variety of international agreements. The White House’s opposition to the Kyoto Protocol and the International Criminal Court is well known. But the Bush administration didn’t even want to sign on to the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes. The U.S. looks suspiciously at many of the new legal and institutional arrangements that are binding world together, at least on paper.

Russia Falls Behind. Russia’s globalization score tumbled eight places in this year’s index to the 52nd position. The Russian economy has become dependent on oil and gas investments, and the country’s partial transformation into a «petrostate» means that its economy is becoming vulnerable to the vicissitudes of those markets. By some accounts, the energy sector’s contribution to industrial output is about 25% of GDP and 50% of the country’s export earnings. The Kremlin’s legal assault on oil giant YUKOS and the bloody terrorist attacks by Chechen forces have deterred many foreign investors. Corruption and inefficiency are also sapping Russian economic strength. By some estimates, the black market was between 20 and 40% of the Russian economy. Privatization and deregulation, meanwhile, have stalled. Russia still has not made the reforms necessary to join the WTO, and trade as a share of Russia’s GDP fell sharply between 1999 and 2003.

Source: Measuring Globalization. A.T. Kearney/Foreign Policy Global Index, 2005

Exercise 4*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

Globalization

Globalization has altered the economic frameworks of both advanced and……. in ways that are difficult to fully comprehend. Nonetheless, the largely unregulated……., with some notable exceptions, appear to move smoothly from one state of equilibrium to another. Adam Smith’s………. remains at work on a global scale.

Because of………, increased innovation, and lower…….. to trade and investment……… trade in recent decades has been expanding at a far faster pace than GDP. As a result, many economies are increasingly…….. to the rigors of international competition and…….. advantage. In the process, lower prices for some goods and services produced by our……. have competitively suppressed domestic price pressures.

Production of traded goods and services has expanded rapidly in economies with large……. labor forces. Most prominent are China and India, which over the past decade have partly opened up to……… and the economies of central and eastern Europe, which were freed from…….. by the fall of the Soviet empire. The consequent significant additions to world production and trade have clearly put…….. pressure on prices in the United States and in the economies of our trading partners.

Over the past two decades…….. has fallen notably, virtually worldwide, as has economic……… Although a complete understanding of the reasons remains elusive, globalization and………. would appear to be essential elements of any paradigm capable of explaining the events of the past ten years. If this is indeed the case, because the extent of globalization and the speed of innovation are limited, the current apparent rapid pace of……… cannot continue indefinitely. The…….. for the latter part of this decade remains opaque because it is uncertain whether this……… paradigm, if that is what it is, is already far advanced and about to slow, or whether it remains in an early, still-vibrant stage of evolution.

Globalization – the extension of the……… and…….. beyond national borders – is patently a key to understanding much of our recent economic history. With a deepening of specialization and a growing capacity to conduct……… and take risks throughout the world, production has become increasingly international.

The pronounced structural shift over the past decade to a far more vigorous and competitive……… than that which existed in earlier post-World War II decades apparently has been adding significant…….. to world economic activity. This……… like that which resulted from similar structural changes in the past, is likely a…….. of the rate of increase of globalization and not its level. If so, such…….. would tend to peter out as we approach the practical limits of globalization. Full globalization, in which production, trade, and finance are driven solely by……… and in which risk is indifferent to distance and national……… will likely never be achieved.

Source: Remarks by Chairman Alan Greenspan Globalization at the Council on Foreign Relations, New York, March 10, 2005

Terms:

transactions, world economy, stimulus, borders, developing nations, central planning, inflation, division of labor, trading partners, innovation, structural shift, global markets, market forces, «invisible hand», specialization, deregulation, exposed, comparative, low wage, downward, outlook, transitional, incentive, function, risk-adjusted rates of return, volatility, impetus, barriers, cross-border

Exercise 5. Translate into English.

Глобалист: Мир закрывается

Не только в России с опаской относятся к иностранным инвесторам. Деловой мир сотрясают скандалы вокруг протекционистских действий властей разных стран мира в отношении зарубежных инвесторов. Президент Франции Жак Ширак и премьер Доминик де Вильпен выступили с призывами оградить национальные компании от поглощений иностранцами после появления слухов о намерении американской PepsiCo установить контроль над французской Danone. Председатель Центробанка Италии Антонио Фацио подозревается в содействии итальянскому Banca Popolare Italiana с целью обойти голландский ABN-Amro в стремлении купить банк Antonveneta. В начале этого года международные инвесторы ополчились на власти Южной Кореи, развернувшие кампанию по ужесточению правил деятельности для иностранных инвесторов. И даже – подумать только! – власти США, как считается, оказали сопротивление попыткам китайской CNOOC купить американскую нефтегазовую компанию Unocal.

Если экономический национализм действительно развивается, то это был бы отличный козырь для российских властей, стремящихся ввести особый режим для иностранных инвестиций в «стратегических сферах». Дескать, все так делают, а чем мы хуже?

Международный рынок прямых трансграничных инвестиций в последние годы сжимался. В 2003 г. объем трансграничных слияний и поглощений, по данным ЮНКТАД, упал с рекордных $866 млрд в 2000 г. до $141 млрд, а в целом объем прямых иностранных инвестиций в глобальной экономике снизился с $1,4 трлн в 2000 г. до $560 млрд. Однако это объяснялось скорее замедлением темпов роста, а также окончанием активной фазы приватизации в странах с переходной экономикой, которая была существенной причиной трансграничного перетока капитала в прежние годы.

Теперь глобальный инвестиционный процесс получил новое мощное препятствие для развития в виде экономического национализма властей. Только несостоявшиеся сделки ABN Amro – Antonveneta и CNOOC – Unocal потянули бы в совокупности на десятки миллиардов. Прямым следствием «инвестиционного протекционизма» российских властей в течение последних лет стали сорвавшиеся сделки в объеме почти $20 млрд (CNPC – «Славнефть», ExxonMobil – «ЮКОС-Сибнефть», Total – «НОВАТЭК», Siemens – «Силовые машины»).

ВТО демонстрирует свою неспособность вмешаться в этот процесс – соглашение по связанным с торговлей инвестиционным мерам регулирует лишь возможности стран навязывать иностранным инвесторам определенные ограничения торгового характера.

Подчеркнутые заботы о преимущественных правах национальных инвесторов часто мотивируются геополитическими факторами, и не без причины. Китайские нефтегазовые госкомпании являются явными носителями геополитических амбиций руководства КНР. В Восточной Европе многим кажется, что в такой роли выступают российские компании. Но настоящая причина все-таки в другом. Национальными инвесторами удобнее рулить – обращаться к ним от имени власти с просьбами, пользоваться благами «дружбы» с крупными национальными бизнесменами (то яхту подарят, то свадьбу дочери оплатят). А с международным бизнесом все это значительно сложнее: общение приходится вести в четких правовых рамках. Для России именно такие мотивации очень актуальны. И, видимо, не только для России. Тем хуже для перспектив роста глобальной экономики.

Источник: Владимир Милов,

президент Института энергетической политики,

Ведомости, 25.08.05

Lesson 25
Multinational Companies

Read and translate the texts and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

Are You Ready to Go Global?

Once you understand how global your industry is, you need to define globalization’s full potential for your company. Although every company is different, most are affected by the same internal and external forces. The challenge is to figure out how these forces will strengthen or weaken over time – and how to capitalize on that evolution. Three types of factors determine the course of globalization in a company: production, regulatory, and organizational.

Production. There are two factors that determine an industry’s potential for disaggregating its value chain: relocationsensitivity and location-specific advantages.

To figure out your relocation sensitivity, consider metrics such as your typical bulk-to-value ratios, the ease with which your company can ensure quality standards remotely, the volatility of the demand for your service, and any sunk costs. Industries that make items that are hard to transport, such as steel or timber, may have little incentive to move their production processes. Companies that have already made huge capital investments in developed countries may not be able to justify shutting down factories even if the variable costs in developing countries are much lower.

To determine your location-specific advantages, look at variables including labor intensity, skill requirements, natural-resources intensity, and economies of scale and scope. Labor-intensive industries, such as apparel, have a greater incentive to move production to lower-wage countries. The exception would be a business whose workforce must possess specific skills that are not available outside a few countries. Industries that rely heavily on natural resources, such as the furniture sector, may find it advantageous to move to countries where those resources are plentiful and less expensive. Industries in which components are standardized, like consumer electronics, can take advantage of economies of scale in the production of individual components.

Regulatory. Host countries’ regulations can inhibit globalization in several ways. A country can impose tariffs, set import and export quotas, require foreign companies to enter into JVs with local companies, specify minimum local content, ban foreign investment outright, or fail to invest in regulatory infrastructures. Indeed, regulatory factors – particularly countries’ efforts to restrict imports or FDI – are among the biggest constraints to globalization in many industries today.

Organizational. Three organizational factors can limit globalization for a company or an industry: internal management structures, incentive systems, and unionization. For example, offshoring in many U.S. companies has been slowed by midlevel managers’ reluctance to give up some responsibility for the migrated positions. Companies must realign management incentives with global, not local, performance metrics, while still allowing for local innovation and risk taking.

Production, regulatory, and organizational forces evolve over time, and the full potential of globalization for companies and industries changes with the geopolitical and macroeconomic environment. The development of GATT and WTO has enabled rapid growth in global trade for most manufacturing products and, more recently, for services. The decline in cargo costs due to standardization of containers and more efficient transport service has encouraged more companies to ship bulky products globally. GPS technology has allowed some companies to closely monitor their road freight and achieve better logistics control, enabling them to disaggregate their value chains. And the improved quality and radically reduced costs of international telecommunications have created the offshoring opportunities.

Escalating competition, steady trade liberalization, and the continual introduction of new technologies will increase the pressure on companies to globalize. Businesses that view the status quo as fixed and neglect to capitalize on emerging global opportunities will be blindsided; those that find ways around the obstacles and prepare for the next stages in their industries will win out. IKEA has pushed the envelope by creating a new business around low transportation costs. The modular design of its furniture (customer assembly is required for nearly all items) means IKEA can transport its goods worldwide much more cost-effectively than traditional furniture manufacturers can.

Standardization is a critical part of globalization in many industries, but it has been resisted by some. Standards can penetrate an industry in two ways – companies can voluntarily adopt them, or governments can impose them. Consumer electronics was transformed when a critical mass of companies voluntarily embraced standards. By contrast, it’s been hard for manufacturers in the wireless handset business to achieve global economies of scale: Europe mandated the GSM standard, while Japan chose the PDC standard.

Source: Diana Farrel, «Beyond Offshoring:

Assess Your Company’s Global Potential»,

Harvard Business Review,

Vol. 82, No.12, December 2004 (excerpt)

Automotive MNCs in Russia

FDI in Russia by the automotive companies requires both the right business opportunities and economic conditions. Some of the right conditions required to attract FDI can be best expressed by the following formula:

FDIt = f (GRP(t-1), Wage(t-1), Education(t-1), Paved Roads(t-1), Openness to trade(t-1), Investment rating(t-1), Crime(t-1), Voter Participation(t-1))

MNCs need to weigh the risks of making substantial FDI versus the potential business returns. Hence, a country’s economic policies, political stability, legal system, infrastructure, and human resources all factor into the decision of if, when, and how an MNC should engage in FDI. Since opening its borders to foreign investment, Russia attracted FDI at a growing pace until its financial crisis in 1998. Inflows of FDI did not recover until mid 2002, at which point Russia’s FDI exceeded $20 billion, indicating foreign MNCs regained confidence in investing in Russia.

Initially, FDI in Russia had been focused on accessing natural resources; more recently investments are focused on both accessing new markets and seeking efficiencies through employing low-cost highly educated workers. FDI focused on developing new markets for products in Russia is limited by the growth of the economy and the low purchasing power of the Russian population. Efficiency-seeking FDI will be limited more by the availability of low-cost educated workers, supply chain capability, and infrastructure robustness.

Ford’s approach

Ford initially announced plans in 1997 to establish car production in Russia. A lengthy negotiation period and the 1998 financial crisis put Ford’s plans on hold until the opening of its St. Petersburg assembly plant in 2002. The St. Petersburg plant was to be wholly owned, a first for a foreign company in Russia. A key advantage of being wholly owned is having complete management control over all aspects of the assembly plants operation. Investing in state-of-the-art facilities, and hiring new workers permit Ford to more easily overcome quality and productivity issues that have been notoriously bad in Russian state-run companies.

Not having a local partner also helps Ford locate its facilities close to the market, rather than wherever the JV partner’s facilities are located. Locating the production facility in St. Petersburg was very important to Ford as 60% of the car market in Russia is currently in St. Petersburg and Moscow. Complete ownership also allows Ford more flexibility in deciding product mix and pricing. By not licensing to a local manufacture, Ford reduces the potential of creating future local competitors caused by technology transfer, and Ford can more effectively create brand awareness. Ford’s FDI in Russia is predominantly considered horizontal FDI because its production of vehicles targets the growing domestic market.

General Motor’s approach

GM had chosen to form a JV with the largest domestic car manufacturer in Russia: AvtoVAZ. Through it, GM gained access to the partner’s production facilities, supply chain, and sales network. Russia’s domestic car makers typically manufacture up to 80% of the components (versus 40% for European manufactures). Partnering with such a company could reduce time to market for new products.

GM will also be able to take advantage of their partner’s relationships with the government. Russia’s numerous government agencies are recognized for their ability to create endless red tape and demand kickbacks. A local partner could prove beneficial in overcoming bureaucratic hurdles. GM’s JV partner, however, also brings with it liabilities such as, until recently, being the largest single debtor to the state due to unpaid taxes. Also, AvtoVAZ had been the subject of an aggressive income tax evasion case by Russian tax authorities in 2000.

GM’s strategy is focused on exporting its vehicles manufactured in Russia; therefore, GM’s FDI can be considered vertical FDI. GM, like Ford, is interested in participating in Russia’s growing domestic car market and does sell a small amount of its production locally. GM, unlike Ford, attempts to both grow its market share within Russia and gain efficiencies via lower labor costs for its exports to other markets.

Summary and conclusions

The OLI theory suggests that when companies leverage Ownership specific advantages (O), Location advantages (L), and Internalization advantages (I) together they gain an advantage from FDI. Both Ford and GM, through whole ownership or JV partnerships, utilize their technology, process, and management capabilities to create a competitive advantage over domestic companies. Such MNCs still have to operate and compete within a business environment having market imperfections, caused in part, by the government’s attitude towards FDI. Many members of the Duma view FDI as an attempt by MNCs to rob Russia of its riches by transferring the wealth abroad.

Political mistrust causes delays in making legislative changes to both the legal and financial system considered necessary to make the market more efficient and attractive for FDI. Political concerns had a direct bearing on GM’s JV with AvtoVAZ, as the government had decided against the sales of shares of AvtoVAZ to a single outside investor. Hence, GM’s JV with AvtoVAZ is restricted to a 41.5% ownership stake, while AvtoVAZ is free to form additional partnerships with other automotive companies such as Korea’s Daewoo. In spite of market inefficiencies caused by inadequate infrastructure, a poorly functioning legal system, a criminalized business environment, and awesome bureaucracy, both Ford and GM view the business rewards for FDI outweighing the risks. While Russia continues to offer great potential for FDI, its internal market imperfections could be a key reason why it was able to only attract an estimated FDI inflow of $5.2 billion out of the global $653 billion FDI flows into major economies in 2003.

Source: J. Stodder, Rensselaer at Hartford, Spring 2005

Essential Vocabulary

1. relocation n – перемещение, передислокация (рабочей силы или производства)

relocate v – перемещать, передислоцировать

2. bulk-to-value ratio – отношение массы груза к его ценности

3. sunk costs – понесенные расходы, расходы прошлых периодов

4. variable costs – переменные затраты

5. labor intensity – трудоемкость

labor intensive – трудоемкий

6. natural-resources intensity – ресурсоемкость

natural-resources intensive – ресурсоемкий

7. consumer electronics – бытовые электронные приборы

8. economies of scope – экономия на масштабах маркетинга и сбыта

9. apparel industry – производство одежды

10. import quota – импортная квота

11. local content – использование местной рабочей силы и оборудования

12. midlevel manager – менеджер среднего звена

13. offshoring n – офшорная деятельность

offshore n – офшор

offshore a – офшорный

14. cargo n – груз

15. cost effective a – эффективный по издержкам

16. automotive company – автомобилестроительная компания

17. factor in(to) v – встраивать, учитывать

18. purchasing power – покупательная способность

19. state-of-the-art – самый современный на настоящий момент

20.licensing n – лицензирование

license n – лицензия

licensor n – лицензиар

licensee n – лицензиат

license v – разрешать, давать разрешение, выдавать лицензию

21. technology transfer – передача технологии

22. horizontal FDI – горизонтальные прямые иностранные инвестиции

23. red tape – бюрократизм

24. kickback n – «откат»

25. tax evasion – уклонение от уплаты налогов незаконными методами

26. vertical FDI – вертикальные прямые иностранные инвестиции

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. What are the determinants of the course of globalization in an industry or a company? 2. What production aspects determine an industry’s potential to globalize? 3. How can a host country’s regulations inhibit globalization? 4. What are the organizational constraints of globalization for a company or an industry? 5. What are the right conditions required to attract FDI? 6. What was the initial focus of MNCs in Russia? 7. What was Ford’s approach to doing business in Russia? 8. How did GM establish its presence in Russia? 9. What is the essence of the OLI theory?

Exercise 2. Explain the meaning of the following terms: «labor intensive», «energy intensive», «capital intensive», «knowledge intensive» and «natural resource intensive». Make sentences of your own with each term.

Exercise 3*. Find terms in the text that match definitions given below and make sentences of your own with each term.

1. efficiencies associated with increasing or decreasing the scale of production

2. efficiencies associated with increasing or decreasing the scope of marketing and distribution

3. a company that manages production establishments located in different countries to produce same or similar products

4. the return of a portion of a commission or payment in accordance with a secret agreement

5. formal permission or authorization to do or forbear some act; a certificate of such permission

6. a corporation that manages production establishments located in at least two countries

7. of international commodity agreements, quantities of the commodity under consideration that contracting countries undertake to import, or quantities that exporting contracting countries undertake not to exceed

8. rigid or excessive routines and procedures causing delay or inaction, as in a bureaucracy

9. a company that manages production establishment in certain country/countries to produce products that serve as input to its production establishments in other country/ countries

Exercise 4. Describe pros and cons of MNCs’ activities in Russian economy using the words funding, investments, technology transfer, know-how, best practices, national sovereignty, relocation, corporate governance, labor costs, competitiveness, employment, wages and salaries, local content, education, fiscal discipline, corruption, environment protection, labor intensive, polluting enterprises, living standards, natural resources, transfer pricing, lobbying, multiplier effect, etc.

Exercise 5*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

Multinationals Say Russia Needs a Makeover

Russia needs to take better care of its image abroad if it wants to compete for foreign investment with other……… like China and India, senior executives from leading……. said Monday.

The government should figure out how to bring its often negative image into line with the more positive reality of…….. in Russia, said a number of members of the Foreign Investment Advisory Committee.

FIAC is a forum that for the past decade has been bringing together…….. with the leaders of 25 large, long-standing investors, including BP, Nestle, ExxonMobil and Deutsche Bank.

«Other regions of the world, China especially, have become favored destinations for investment,» said Jim Turley, chairman of Ernst & Young Global, who…….FIAC with Prime Minister Mikhail Fradkov.

Last year, Russia received a mere $6.8 billion in………, compared to China’s $53.5 billion, according to Renaissance Capital.

FIAC also made some more expected recommendations, calling on the government to continue………., bring stability to the……… and improve tax and accounting practices.

Participants singled out the need for Russia to clamp down on excessive……. if it wants to compete for investment.

But for the first time in its 10-year history, FIAC created a special……. dedicated to…… Russia’s image.

«Russia needs to put forward its own…… better,» said Ralph Kugler, president of Unilever.

Countries like China and India «might have lower…….,» Kugler said. «Russia, on the other hand, might have a higher standard of……..»

«There was a general…….. between the foreign investors and the government about the fact that the perception of Russia didn’t align with the reality of the…….. in Russia – and that that perception needed to be moved,» said Grant Winterton, Coca-Cola’s general manager for Russia.

The final communique also recommended that the government complete a plan to spread…….. among foreign investors that political and economic risk is dropping.

Not all the…… gathered in the President Hotel agreed that a government-run…… offensive is what Russia needs, however.

«So many…… are missed because of the wrong perception from abroad,» said Michel Perhirin, chairman of the board at Raiffeisenbank. But, he added, «I don’t believe a media…… could be extremely effective.»

A few FIAC members suggested that the country’s image is not the key to…… investment.

John Barry, president of Shell in Russia said Shell is pushing government regulators to implement….. reforms that will help facilitate…… oil drilling farther afield from cheaper, more accessible……..

Other participants said that the government has indeed been improving its dialogue with the foreign business……

«Particularly these last few years, under President (Vladimir) Putin, we’ve had superior…… from government at (FIAC) meetings,» said senior vice president of United Technologies Corp., Ruth Harkin.

Established in 1994 as a….. for foreign investors and government officials to share investment concerns, FIAC has had a big…… in pushing a number of reforms.

Recently, FIAC members helped the government rework the….. Code and corporate taxation.

FIAC meets annually to discuss pending…… and its effect on foreign investment.

Source: Moscow Times, September 28, 2004 (abridged)

Terms:

FDI, opportunities, representation, media, Customs, legislation, developing countries, red tape, awareness, community, consensus, education, multinationals, impact, doing business, venue, government officials, co-chairs, tax, administrative reform, banking system, locations, boosting, strengths, labor costs, investment climate, executives, campaign, attracting, capital intensive, working group

Exercise 6. Translate into English.

Ценности капитализма: Приоритет национального бизнеса

Дискуссия о соотношении местного и иностранного капитала в российской экономике в последнее время приобрела новое звучание как в коридорах власти, так и в широкой аудитории. Стремление создать мощные национальные компании и уважаемую бизнес-элиту закономерно и понятно. Но очень часто именно иностранцы привносят в российскую практику высокие стандарты качества продукции и социальной ответственности, включая выплату достойных зарплат сотрудникам и соблюдение жестких экологических стандартов. Либерализации процесса привлечения иностранных инвестиций будет способствовать и скорое вступление России в ВТО, а также новое законодательство о концессиях. Показательно, что, например, Германия практически не имеет ограничений для зарубежных инвестиций, за исключением определенного рода вложений в финансовый сектор.

Особенно полезен приход иностранных игроков в отрасли импортозамещения. Прежде всего очень актуально строительство новых заводов в депрессивных регионах, способное частично решить проблему безработицы и пополнения местных бюджетов. Или в сферу услуг: нельзя забывать, что своим рождением и энергичным развитием, к примеру, МТС и «ВымпелКом» во многом обязаны зарубежным акционерам, соответственно немецкому DT и норвежскому Telenor.

Сложнее с сырьевыми отраслями: сотрудничество с грандами мирового бизнеса помогает соответствующим российским компаниям разделить риски наиболее капиталоемких проектов, а в ряде случаев получить доступ к новым рынкам сбыта. И все-таки приоритет национального капитала в сырьевом секторе неизбежен. Но он станет позитивным фактором, только если отечественная бизнес-элита будет становиться ответственней, если государство ужесточит регулирование как в части обязательств перед обществом, так и в части соблюдения лицензионных соглашений. Более чем важна и реализация долгосрочной, а не только краткосрочной стратегии развития. Общеизвестно, что в стране с западными экономическими ценностями, Норвегии, нефтегазовая отрасль в основном контролируется национальными компаниями – Statoil и Norsk Hydro, а международные гранды нефтегазового бизнеса привлекаются при решении конкретных задач, прежде всего технических. При этом инструментарий фондового рынка и наличие таких полезных пиявок, как агрессивно нацеленные на передовые стандарты корпоративного управления и рост прибыльности миноритарные акционеры, заставляют корпорации более активно работать над своей эффективностью и дают им возможность ощутить себя частью глобальной экономики.

Наверное, определенное ограничение иностранного капитала было бы логично в отраслях и конкретных компаниях, у которых имеются уникальные технологии и ресурсы для успешной конкуренции в международном масштабе. Речь может идти в первую очередь о создающейся Объединенной авиастроительной компании. Хотя и в этом случае миноритарный пакет у иностранного стратегического партнера, такого, как EADS, помог бы наладить эффективную кооперацию и технологическое сотрудничество.

Очевидно, что намерение правительства упорядочить присутствие иностранного капитала в российской экономике позволит прояснить правила игры и позитивно прежде всего для самих иностранных инвесторов. Важно лишь, чтобы принятые нормы были прозрачными, не позволяли двойного толкования и не имели в качестве побочного эффекта появления новой коррупционной кормушки для чиновников. Также нужно понимать, что иностранные компании – BP и ConocoPhillips – уже являются акционерами нескольких крупных российских нефтяных компаний и любой поворот назад в этом вопросе будет болезненно воспринят фондовым рынком, сколь короткой ни была бы память инвесторов. Но скорее всего, до этого не дойдет, и будут введены ограничения для иностранцев по участию в освоении месторождений, имеющих стратегический характер, прежде всего с точки зрения обеспечения национальной безопасности. Только взвешенное решение этого вопроса позволит успешно провести планируемые в следующем году IPO госпакетов важнейших компаний нашей экономики, в том числе «Роснефти», Внешторгбанка, «КамАЗа» и Дальневосточного пароходства.

Источник: С. Суверов, начальник центра анализа

рыночной конъюнктуры Газпромбанка. Ведомости, 26.09.05

Lesson 26
Foreign Trade

Read and translate the text and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

The Basics of Foreign Trade

Free Trade Vs. Protectionism

All governments regulate foreign trade. The extent to which they do so is a matter of great controversy and debate. Although the amount of government involvement in trade varies from country to country and product to product, overall barriers to trade have been lowered since World War II.

Arguments for Protection

– Cheap labor: Less developed countries have a natural cost advantage as labor costs in those economies are low. They can produce goods less expensively than developed economies and their goods are more competitive in international markets.

– Infant industries: Protectionists argue that infant industries must be protected to give them time to grow and become strong enough to compete internationally, especially industries that may be a foundation for future growth, e.g. computers and telecommunications.

– National security concerns: Any industry crucial to national security, such as producers of military hardware, should be protected.

– Diversification of the economy: If a country channels all its resources into a few industries, no matter how internationally competitive those industries are, it runs the risk of becoming too dependent on them. Keeping weaker industries competitive through protection may help in diversifying the nation’s economy.

– Lowering environmental standards: In the rush to meet the world demand for their exports, some countries may compromise on environmental standards. This is particularly true for less developed countries that do not have well defined environmental protection laws in place.

Methods of Protection

– Tariffs: Tariffs are taxes on imports. Tariffs make the item more expensive for consumers, thereby reducing the demand. Ad valorem tariffs are usually levied as a percentage of the value of the import, although sometimes a flat rate may be charged.

– Import quotas: Governments sometimes restrict the sale of foreign goods by imposing quotas. They limit the quantity of foreign goods that can be imported and help domestic producers by limiting the share of the market that can be taken by foreigners.

– Voluntary restraints: Sometimes governments negotiate agreements whereby a country agrees to voluntarily limit its export of a certain product. Japan voluntarily limited its export of cars to the United States in 1992 to 1.65 million cars per year.

– Subsidies: Another way to achieve the goals of protectionism is to make the domestic industry more competitive through subsidies.

Subsidies can be:

–Direct – outright payments

–Indirect – special tax breaks or incentives, buying of surplus goods, providing low-interest loans or guaranteeing private loans. For example, the U.S. subsidizes the sugar and dairy industries, among others.

– Trade ban: Sometimes governments ban trade with certain countries for political reasons. Governments also ban import of certain products to protect domestic industries. For instance, Japan bans importation of rice.

– Imposing standards: Health, safety and environmental (HSE) standards often vary from country to country. These may act as a barrier to free trade and a tool of protectionism. For example, the EU has very stringent health and safety standards that goods have to meet in order to be imported.

– Others: Apart from the legal restrictions there may be other less formal obstacles that impede trade. Cultural factors are one such obstacle.

Arguments for Free Trade

U.S. free-trade advocates typically argue that consumers benefit from freer trade. Free trade and the resulting foreign competition forces U.S. companies to keep prices low. Consumers have a larger variety of goods and services to choose from in open markets. Domestic companies have to modernize equipment and technologies to keep themselves competitive.

Any kind of protectionist measures, like tariffs, often bring about retaliatory actions from foreign governments, which may restrict the sale of U.S. goods in their markets. This may result in inflation and unemployment in the U.S. as the export industries suffer and prices of imports rise.

Measures of Trade

Balance of trade and balance of payments are two of the statistics most widely used to measure a country’s international trade position. Balance of trade is the difference between a nation’s exports and imports of both goods and services.

A «favorable» balance of trade, or trade surplus, occurs when exports exceed imports. A «negative» balance, or trade deficit, occurs when the imports surpass exports. From the mid-1970s through 2001, the U.S. ran persistent trade deficits.

The balance of trade alone does not give the whole picture. The detailed record of all economic transactions between a country and the rest of the world is called the balance of payments. This includes trade in:

– Goods and services; and

– Financial and non-financial assets.

The BoP is separated into two main accounts:

–Current account – records export/import of goods and services and interest payments. The merchandise trade balance is contained in this account.

–Capital account – records purchase or sale of assets or investments, like companies, stocks, bonds, bank accounts, real estate and factories.

If you buy an automobile made by a factory in Germany, the transaction will be recorded in the current account. However, if you buy the automobile factory or stock in the automobile factory, the transaction will be a part of the capital account.

Every international transaction automatically enters the BoP twice, once as a credit and once as a debit, resulting in two equal and opposite entries. A transaction that involves money flowing into the country is recorded as a balance of payment credit and anything that draws money out of the country is a balance of payment debit.

This system of double-entry bookkeeping tries to ensure that the current and capital accounts are balanced. However, due to accounting conventions and differences in the recorded values of transactions, this does not always happen. Accounting for these differences, called statistical discrepancies, makes possible the following fundamental identity of the balance of payment accounts:

Current account + Capital account + Statistical discrepancy = 0

Current Account

The current account consists of four sub accounts:

–Merchandise trade consists of all raw materials and manufactured goods bought or sold. Since early 1990s, the merchandise trade account has been combined with services to determine the «balance of trade».

– Services include tourism, transportation, engineering, and business services, such as law, management consulting, and accounting. Fees from patents and copyrights on new technology, software, books, and movies also are recorded in the service category.

–Income receipts record investment incomes made up of interest and dividend payments and earnings of domestic owned firms operating abroad.

–Unilateral transfers are payments that do not correspond to the purchase of any good, service or asset. These usually take the form of international aid, gifts, or worker remittances from abroad.

Capital Account

The capital account measures the difference between sales of assets to foreigners and purchases of assets located abroad. U.S. – owned assets abroad are divided into official reserve assets, government assets, and private assets. These assets include gold, foreign currencies, foreign securities, reserve position in the IMF, U.S. credits and other long-term assets, direct foreign investment, and U.S. claims reported by U.S. banks.

Foreign-owned assets in the U.S. are divided into foreign official assets and other foreign assets. These assets include U.S. government, agency, and corporate securities; direct investment; U.S. currency, and U.S. liabilities reported by U.S. banks.

Balance of Payments Deficit and Surplus

In theory, the current account should balance with the capital account. The sum of the balance of payments statements should be zero. Therefore, when a country buys more goods and services than it sells (a current account deficit), it must finance the difference by borrowing, or by selling more capital assets than it buys (a capital account surplus).

The accounts do not exactly offset each other, due to statistical discrepancies, accounting conventions, and exchange rate movements.

Measuring Imports and Exports

Imports: U.S. importers file tax documents with the U.S. Customs Service describing the type and value of imported goods. These reports are processed and tabulated to arrive at the overall level of U.S. imports. Inaccurate reports, delays in processing data, and smuggling can affect their value.

Exports: There is no tax on exports, so to collect information, the U.S. Department of Commerce developed a form called the Shippers’ Export Declaration (SED) form, which is filled out when goods are sent overseas. These are tallied to arrive at export totals.

The Bretton Woods Agreements Act of 1945 requires the publication of balance of payments information. The statistics are generally reliable although the collection process is often difficult, especially in case of data on travel, services, FDI and financial transactions.

Sometimes it is difficult to classify a good as an import or an export. Trade is usually tabulated on the basis of national origin rather than national ownership. If a product is shipped from the U.S. to Germany, it is considered a U.S. export and a German import. It makes no difference whether a foreign company owns the U.S. factory or if it is a U.S. firm in Germany that imports the product. If a U.S. company owns a plant in Brazil and sells a product to a Japanese company in Canada, the transaction is recorded as a Canadian import and a Brazilian export.

Source: www.newyorkfed.org

Essential Vocabulary

1. infant industry – «молодая» отрасль экономики

2. ad valorem (ad val) – «со стоимости», «адвалорный» (метод расчета налога, тарифа или вознаграждения в форме фиксированного процента от стоимости)

3. levy n – налог, сбор, взнос; арест собственности по судебному приказу

levy v – взимать, собирать (налог)

4. voluntary restraint – добровольное ограничение

5. tax break – налоговая льгота

6. trade ban – запрет на торговлю

7. health, safety and environmental (HSE) standards – стандарты по здравоохранению, безопасности и экологии

8. retaliatory action – ответное действие

9. balance of trade (ВОТ) – торговый баланс

10. favorable balance of trade – положительный (активный) торговый баланс

11. negative (unfavorable) balance of trade – отрицательный (пассивный) торговый баланс

12. merchandise (commodity) trade balance – баланс товарной торговли

13. capital account (с/а) – капитальный счет

14. real estate – недвижимость

15. entry n – бухгалтерская запись (проводка)

16. debit n – дебет, левая сторона счета

debit v – дебетовать счет, записать по дебету счета

17. double-entry bookkeeping – система двойной записи

18. statistical discrepancy – статистическое расхождение

19. international aid – международная помощь

20. remittance (rem) n – денежный перевод, платеж

remit v – переводить, отправлять деньги

21. official reserve assets – официальные резервные активы

22. securities n – ценные бумаги

23. reserve position – сальдо резервов

24. claim n – требование, право, претензия, иск, рекламация; участок земли, отведенный под разработку недр

claim v – требовать, претендовать; утверждать; возбуждать иск о возмещении убытков

25. Сustoms Service – таможенная служба

26. smuggling n – контрабанда

smuggler n – контрабандист

smuggle v – заниматься контрабандой

27. Department of Commerce (US) – Министерство торговли США

28. Shippers’ Export Declaration (SED) – экспортная декларация

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. What are the arguments that advocates of protectionism usually use? 2. What protectionist tools can governments apply to manage their countries’ international trade positions? 3. What do the US free trade advocates traditionally say to support their views? 4. What are the key measurements of trade? 5. What is the essence of the balance of trade? 6. How is the balance of payments structured? 7. How are exports and imports measured?

Exercise 2*. Match the following definitions with terms given below and make sentences with each terms.

1. With this term of settlement the exporter insists on receiving payment before shipping or dispatching the goods.

2. An order drawn and signed by the exporter (the drawer) addressed to the importer or the bank (the drawee) to pay the exporter (the payee) a certain sum on a specific day.

3. Any plant, machinery, equipment or accessories required for manufacture or production, either directly or indirectly, of goods or for rendering services, including those required for replacement, modernization, technological upgrading or expansion.

4. Items, which participate in or are required for a manufacturing process, but do not necessarily form part of the end-product. Items, which are substantially or totally consumed during a manufacturing process.

5. Goods, which can directly satisfy human needs without further processing.

6. Processing of or working upon raw materials or semi-finished goods supplied to the job worker so as to complete a part of the process resulting in the manufacture or finishing of an article or any operation which is essential for the aforesaid process.

7. To make, produce, fabricate, assemble, process or bring into existence, by hand or by machine, a new product having a distinctive name, character or use and shall include processes such as refrigeration, re-packing, polishing, labeling.

8. This term relates to the form of settlement whereby companies simply invoice their customers and expect to receive payment in due course, usually 30, 60 or 90 days after invoice date.

9. An individual, firm, society, company, or corporation.

10. Basic materials which are needed for the manufacture of goods, but which are still in a natural, unrefined or unmanufactured state.

11. A part or a sub-assembly or assembly for substitution, that is ready to replace an identical or similar part or sub-assembly or assembly. It includes a component or an accessory.

Terms:

jobbing, capital goods, person, bill of exchange, consumables, open account trading, spare part, consumer goods, manufacture, raw material, advance payment

Exercise 3. You are a journalist writing for The Moscow Times and you are to interview a WTO official about the policies and goals of this organization. Make a dialogue between these two individuals using the following briefing materials.

The World Trade Organization (WTO), established on January 1, 1995, is the only global international organization dealing with the rules of trade between nations. It was created by the Uruguay Round of negotiations over a 14-year period and has 144 member countries (as of January 2002). At the heart of the WTO are the various agreements, negotiated and signed by the bulk of the world’s trading nations and ratified in their parliaments. These agreements cover a range of topics:

–Reductions in tariffs;

–Fairer competition in agricultural trade;

–Textiles trade;

–Trade in services;

–Protection and enforcement of intellectual property;

–Issues related to antidumping, export subsidies, and safeguards; and

–Other non-tariff barriers.

The goal of the WTO is to help producers of goods and services, exporters, and importers conduct their business. The agreements have three main objectives:

–To help trade flow as freely as possible,

–To achieve further liberalization gradually through negotiation, and

–To set up an impartial means of settling disputes.

Exercise 4*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

Russia’s WTO Accession:

What are the macroeconomic, sector, labor market and household effects?

Accession to the WTO is likely to generate substantial benefits for Russia – about 7% of the value of……. in the medium term and considerably more in the long term. These benefits would come from increased…… by…….. service providers, due to……. to……. the services sectors to foreign investors; from increased……. due to an inflow of imported technology as the result of a reduction in Russian………; and from the improved treatment of Russian exporters in……… cases. The main export sectors are likely to experience the greatest…….. Sectors that export little and that have relatively high……… are likely to……. in the medium term. In the long term, an improvement in the……… should expand the capital stock and incomes.

The vast majority of……… will gain from WTO accession. Government…….. are crucial in helping with the short-run…….. impact from the accession, especially for the poorest members of society. Despite gains in the medium to long term, during a……… period it is possible that many individuals will lose. There will be………workers who have been……… and will need to find new employment. These workers will suffer losses from transitional unemployment and are likely to…….. expenses related to…….. or………. Thus, despite the likely substantial improvement in the……….. for almost all Russian after accession to the WTO and after adjustment to the new equilibrium, the transition will require a strong role for……….

WTO accession is an important step toward an open economy model of development. These results are consistent with international experience of the past 20—30 years that shows that rapid and……….. economic growth has occurred only in countries that progressively liberalized import protection, and who provided……… to exporters that……… the tax that import protection imposes on exports.

Source: Thomas Rutherford, University of Colorado, David Tarr, The World Bank (abridged)

Terms:

sustained, offset, safety nets, relocation, adverse, public policy, transition, return on investment, consumption, unskilled, tariff barriers, living standards, FDI, incur, households, contract, multinational, commitments, liberalize, productivity, antidumping, expansion, import protection, displaced, retraining, incentives

Exercise 5. Translate into English.

Длинный минус

Торговый баланс РФ скоро станет отрицательным. Для большой развивающейся страны это довольно неприятно

Положительное сальдо счета текущих операций – редкое явление. В 2007 г. из 181 страны лишь 65 имели положительный баланс. Россия по объему внешнего профицита была на 5-м месте. Но это ненадолго.

Среднесрочные перспективы России вызывают опасения. МЭРТ полагает, что сальдо счета текущих операций РФ станет отрицательным и закрепится на уровне 2% ВВП уже через 2-3 года. Хотя, несомненно, что положительное сальдо счета текущих операций будет снижаться, нет уверенности, что Россия может себе позволить дефицит по внешним операциям.

В реальном выражении баланс товаров и услуг снижается с 2004 г., когда на фоне быстрорастущего спроса и укрепления рубля реальный объем импорта увеличивался быстрее, чем объем экспорта. В то же время благодаря инфляции цен на топливо и металлы номинальный (выраженный в долларах по текущим ценам) торговый баланс увеличивался с 2002 по 2006 г. В прошлом году этот показатель немного снизился, но из-за скачка нефтяных цен в этом году он снова вырастет. Тем не менее, даже если цена на нефть стабилизируется на нынешнем уровне, торговый баланс неизбежно начнет снижаться. А за ним последует и сальдо текущих операций, чему будут немало способствовать растущие затраты на обслуживание внешнего корпоративного долга.

На первый взгляд внешний дефицит в 2% ВВП не кажется чрезмерным. Для сравнения, в прошлом году такой или даже больший дефицит имели 105 стран. Однако более детальный анализ показывает, что это могут позволить себе либо развитые страны с хорошим инвестиционным климатом вроде США, Великобритании, Испании, Италии, Австралии, либо небольшие развивающиеся страны, которым для покрытия дефицита в среднем достаточно $2,5 млрд.

Россия же относится к группе больших развивающихся стран: уже сегодня 2% ВВП составляет $35 млрд, а к 2018—2020 гг., по оценкам МЭРТ, эта сумма вырастет до $100 млрд. Попытка получить приток капитала в таких объемах означает конкуренцию именно с развитыми странами, которые по сравнению с Россией обладают несомненными преимуществами – высоким качеством общественных институтов и надежной защитой прав инвесторов.

Тем временем предложение на мировом рынке капитала может снизиться. Ведь любая страна способна кредитовать остальной мир лишь в пределах суммы собственного положительного сальдо по счету текущих операций. А если цены на нефть стабилизируются или начнут снижаться, сальдо счета текущих операций будет уменьшаться и в других странах-экспортерах топлива. Это еще один аргумент против того, что России будет в состоянии в течение длительного времени финансировать столь большой дефицит.

Что это значит для российской экономики? Очевидно, давление на валютный рынок возрастет, и Банк России будет вынужден отойти от нынешней политики таргетирования рубля против корзины валют. Курс рубля будет отпущен в свободное плавание и, по нашим прогнозам, может девальвироваться на 3-4% в номинальном выражении. Этого достаточно, чтобы реальный рубль стабилизировался. Банк России потеряет контроль над рублем, зато приобретет больше влияния в денежно-кредитной политике: его роль как кредитора последней инстанции значительно возрастет.

Источник: Антон Струченевский,

старший экономист ИК «Тройка Диалог»,

Smart Money, 21 апреля 2008 г.

Lesson 27
Foreign Exchange Market

Read and translate the text and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

What is FOREX?

FOREX (FOReign EXchange market) is an international foreign exchange market, where money is sold and bought freely. FOREX was launched in the 1970s, when free exchange rates were introduced.

Only market participants determine the price of one currency against the other proceeding from supply and demand. As far as the freedom from any external control and free competition are concerned, FOREX is a perfect market. It is also the biggest liquid financial market. Money masses in the market constitute from 1 to 1.5 trillion US dollars a day. Transactions are conducted all over the world via telecommunications 24 hours a day from 00:00 GMT on Monday to 10:00 pm GMT on Friday.

FOREX is an objective market, because if some of its participants would like to change prices they would have to operate with tens of billions dollars. That is why any influence by a single participant in the market is practically out of the question. The superior liquidity allows the traders to open and/or close positions within a few seconds. The time of keeping a position is arbitrary and has no limits: from several seconds to many years. Although the daily fluctuations of currencies are rather insignificant, you may use the credit lines, that are accessible even to currency speculators with small capitals ($1,000—5,000), where the profit may be impressive.

The idea of marginal trading or leverage trading stems from the fact that in FOREX speculative interests can be satisfied without a real money supply by using trading with a margin deposit. This decreases overhead expenses for transferring money and gives an opportunity to open positions with a small account in US dollars, buying and selling a lot of other currencies. In marginal trading, each transaction has two obligatory stages: buying (selling) of currency at one price (opening the position), and then selling (buying) it at another (or at the same) price (closing the position).

Opening a position, a trader furnishes a deposit sum from 0.5 to 4 % of the credit line granted for the transaction. So, in order to buy or sell USD 100,000 for Japanese yens, you will not need the whole sum, but only from USD 500 to 2000 depending on your policy of controlling risks. When the position is closed, the deposit sum returns, and calculation of profits or losses is done. Marginal trading in an exchange market uses lots. 1 lot equals approximately $100,000, but to open it, it is necessary to have only from 0.5% to 4% of the sum.

For example, you have analyzed the situation in the market and come to the conclusion that the pound will go up against the dollar. You open 1 lot for buying the pound (GBP) with the margin 1% (1:1000 leverage) at the price of 1.49889 and wait for the exchange rate to go up. Some time later your expectations become true. You close the position at 1.5050 and earn 61 pips (about $405).

The major currencies traded in FOREX, are Euro (EUR), Japanese yen (JPY), British Pound (GBP), and Swiss Franc (CHF). All of them are traded against the USD.

While trading you can fix your profit or cut off your losses according to the orders Limit and Stop. Limit is set up higher than the current meaning of the price. Stop is set up lower than the current meaning of the price. With these commands the positions are closed without additional orders when the price reaches the agreed level.

In order to assess the situation in the market a trader has to be able to use fundamental and/or technical analysis, as well as to make decisions in the constantly changing current of political and economic information. Most small and medium players in financial markets use technical analysis. Technical analysis presupposes that all the information about the market and its further fluctuations is contained in the price chain. Any factor, that has some influence on the price, be it economic, political or psychological, has already been considered by the market and included in the price.

Technical analysis is a statistical and mathematical analysis of previous quotes and a prognosis of coming prices. A number of technical indicators have been installed into the PRO-CHARTS trading system. Analyzing the indicators one can come to the conclusion about further movements of the quoted currencies.

Fundamental analysis is an analysis of current situations in the country of the currency, such as its economy, political events, and rumors. The country’s economy depends on the rate of inflation and unemployment, on the interest rate of its Central Bank, and on tax policy. Political stability also influences the exchange rate.

At the same time one should not consider fundamental analysis just as an analysis of the economic situation in the country itself. A far bigger role in the FOREX market belongs to the expectations of the market participants.

Various prognoses and bulletins, issued by the participants, have a strong influence on the expectations. Very often an effect of the so-called self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when market players raise or lower the exchange rates according to the prognosis. But a deep and thorough fundamental analysis is available only for big banks with a staff of professional analysts and constant access to a wide field of information.

Reading a foreign exchange quote may seem a bit confusing at first. However, it’s really quite simple if you remember two things: 1) The currency listed first is the base currency and 2) the value of the base currency is always 1.

The USD is the centerpiece of the Forex market and is normally considered the ‘base’ currency for quotes. In the «Majors», this includes USD/JPY, USD/CHF and USD/CAD. For these currencies and many others, quotes are expressed as a unit of $1 USD per the second currency quoted in the pair. For example, a quote of USD/JPY 110.01 means that one U.S. dollar is equal to 110.01 Japanese yen.

When the U.S. dollar is the base unit and a currency quote goes up, it means the dollar has appreciated in value and the other currency has weakened. If the USD/JPY quote increases to 113.01, the dollar is stronger as it will now buy more yen than before.

The three exceptions to this rule are the British pound (GBP), the Australian dollar (AUD) and the Euro (EUR). In these cases, you might see a quote such as GBP/USD 1.7366, meaning that one British pound equals 1.7366 U.S. dollars. In these three currency pairs, a rising quote means a weakening dollar, as it now takes more U.S. dollars to equal one pound, Euro or Australian dollar.

Currency pairs that do not involve the U.S. dollar are called cross currencies, but the premise is the same. For example, a quote of EUR/JPY 127.95 signifies that one Euro is equal to 127.95 Japanese yen.

When trading forex you will often see a two-sided quote, consisting of a ‘bid’ and ‘offer’. The ‘bid’ is the price at which you can sell the base currency (at the same time buying the counter currency). The ‘ask’ is the price at which you can buy the base currency (at the same time selling the counter currency).

Foreign exchange quotes are a relation between currencies.

USDJPY – the cost of $1 in Japanese yens.

EURUSD – the cost of Euro 1 in US dollars.

That is, quotes are expressed in the units of the second currency for a unit of the first one. For example, quote USDJPY 108,91 shows that $1 costs 108,91 Japanese yens. Quote EURUSD 0.9561 shows that 1 Euro costs 0.9561 US dollars.

The last figure in the quote is called «pip». The cost of the pip is different for every currency, and depends on the leverage and current quote.

GBPUSD and EURUSD are direct quotes, i.e. when the chart goes up, GBP and EUR become more expensive, and when it goes down, the currencies become cheaper. USDCHF and USDJPY are backward quotes, and when the chart grows, prices on CHF and JPY fall, and when the chart goes down, the prices grow.

On direct quotes you buy according to ASK and sell according to BID. With backward quotes, you buy according to BID and sell according to ASK.

Participants of a Foreign Exchange Market

Commercial banksconduct the main volume of exchange transactions. Other participants of the market have their accounts at the banks, conducting necessary conversion transactions. Banks accumulate the combined needs of the market in exchange conversions as well as in calling and distributing money, breaking with it into new banks. Besides satisfying clients’ requests, banks can operate independently, using their own assets. A forex market is a market of interbank dealings, and one should bear in mind the existence of an interbank foreign exchange market. In international forex markets, international banks with the daily volume of transactions of billions dollars have the biggest influence. These are Barclays Bank, Citibank, Chase Manhattan Bank, Deutsche Bank, Swiss Bank Corporation, Union Bank of Switzerland, etc.

Exchange markets. Exchange markets do not work in a definite building and they do not have definite business hours. Thanks to the development of telecommunications most of the leading financial institutions of the world use services of exchange markets directly and via mediators 24 hours a day. The biggest international exchange markets are based in London, New York and Tokyo. In some transitional economies there are exchange markets for currency exchange by juristic persons and for forming a market exchange rate. The state usually regulates the exchange rate in an active manner, using the compactness of the exchange market.

Central banks control currency reserves, realize interventions, and regulate the interest rate in the national currency. The central bank of the U.S., the US Federal Reserve Bank, or «FED», has the greatest influence in the international exchange markets. It is followed by the central banks of Germany (the Deutsche Bundesbank or BUBA) and of Great Britain (the Bank of England, nicknamed the «Old Lady»).

Firms that conduct foreign trade transactions. Companies participating in international trade have a stable demand for foreign currency (importers) and supply (exporters). These organizations do not have direct access to exchange markets, and they conduct their conversion and deposit transactions via commercial banks.

Investment funds represented by various international investment, pension, and mutual funds, insurance companies, and trusts, realize the policy of diversified portfolio management by placing their money in government or corporate securities. The fund Quantum owned by George Soros executes successful exchange speculations. Big MNCs, such as Xerox, Nestle, GM that make FDI, also are firms of this kind.

Broker companies bring together a buyer and a seller of foreign currency and conduct a conversion dealing between them for a broker’s fee. In the forex market there is no fee as a percent from the sum of a transaction, or as a sum agreed in advance. Usually broker companies quote currency with a spread, which includes their fee. A broker company is a place where the real exchange rate is formed according to closed deals. The biggest international broker companies are Lasser Marshall, Harlow Butler, Tullett and Tokio, Coutts, and Tradition.

Private persons. Natural persons realize a wide range of non-commercial transactions in the sphere of foreign tourism, transfers of salaries, pensions, royalties, buying and selling foreign currency.

Source: www.pro.forex.com

Essential Vocabulary

1.foreign exchange market (FOREX, FX) – валютный рынок

2.Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) – среднее время по гринвичскому меридиану

3.open position – открытая позиция

4.closed position – закрытая позиция

5.keep a position – держать позицию

6.credit line – кредитная линия

7.marginal (leverage) trading – торговля без внесения всей суммы сделки

8.speculator n – спекулянт; игрок на бирже

speculative a – спекулятивный

speculate v – спекулировать; играть на бирже

9.margin deposit – маргинальный депозит

10.pip n – «пип» (минимальное изменение курса)

11.limit order – лимитная (ограниченная) заявка

12.stop order – «стоп»-заявка

13.fundamental analysis – фундаментальный анализ

14.technical analysis – технический анализ

15.self-fulfilling prophecy – самореализующееся предсказание

16.quote n – котировка

quote v – котировать

17.base currency – базовая валюта

18.cross currency – кросс-валюта

19.offer (ask) price – цена предложения (продажи)

20.direct quote – прямая котировка

21.backward quote – обратная котировка

22.commercial bank – коммерческий банк

23.interbank foreign exchange market – межбанковский валютный рынок

24.transitional economy – страна с переходной экономикой

25.juristic person – юридическое лицо

26.US Federal Reserve Bank (Fed) – Федеральный резервный банк (США)

27.Deutsche Bundesbank – Немецкий федеральный банк

28.Bank of England (ВЕ, ВоЕ) – Центральный банк Великобритании

29.mutual fund – взаимный фонд

30.trust n – траст, трест

31.spread n – спрэд

32.private (natural) person – физическое лицо

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. What are the characteristics of the forex market? 2. What does marginal trading mean? 3. How can you regulate your profits and losses in the course of trading? 4. What is technical analysis and on what premises is it founded? 5. What is fundamental analysis? 6. What are the principles of reading the FX quote? 7. Who are the key FX market players? 8. What are the merits of the forex market?

Exercise 2*. Which of the following statements are not correct and why?

1. Forex market is the biggest liquid financial market. 2. A single participant in the market can strongly influence its dynamics. 3. The idea of marginal trading stems from the fact that in FOREX speculative interests can be satisfied only with a real money supply. 4. The major currencies traded in FOREX are traded against Euro. 5. In the course of trading you can fix your profit or cut off your losses according to the commands LIMIT and STOP. 6. Most small and medium players in financial markets use technical analysis. 7. Fundamental analysis is an analysis of current situations in the country of the currency. 8. The currency listed second in a foreign exchange quote is the base currency. 9. Currency pairs that do not involve the U.S. dollar are called cross currencies. 10. Commercial banks conduct the main volume of exchange transactions. 11. Exchange markets work in a definite building and have definite business hours. 12. A broker company, having the information about the asked rates, is a place where the real exchange rate is formed according to closed deals.

Exercise 3*. Find terms in the text that match definitions given below and make sentences of your own with each term.

1. the price at which the market is prepared to sell a specific currency in a foreign exchange contract or cross currency contract

2. the first currency in a currency pair

3. the price at which the market is prepared to buy a specific currency in a foreign exchange contract or cross currency contract

4. a government or quasi-governmental organization that manages a country’s monetary policy

5. a transaction fee charged by a broker

6. the second listed currency in a currency pair

7. a foreign exchange transaction in which one foreign currency is traded against a second foreign currency

8. analysis of economic and political information with the objective of determining future movements in a financial market

9. action by a central bank to affect the value of its currency by entering the market

10. an order with restrictions on the maximum price to be paid or the minimum price to be received

11. the ability of a market to accept large transaction with minimal to no impact on price stability

12. a unit to measure the amount of the deal

13. the smallest unit of price for any foreign currency

14. an indicative market price, normally used for information purposes only

15. the process by which a trade is entered into the books and records of the counterparts to a transaction

16. the difference between the bid and offer prices

17. an effort to forecast prices by analyzing market data, i.e. historical price trends and averages, volumes, open interest, etc

18. the cost of buying or selling a financial instrument

Exercise 4*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

Futures Trading at Chicago Mercantile Exchange

The history of modern futures trading is traced to the grain trade in the Midwest U.S. in the 1800s. Grain merchants developed the first formal…… in 1848 in Chicago. These merchants were looking for a system to standardize trading…….. While forward……… were initially utilized, these privately……… agreements were not standardized and sometimes……….. defaulted. In an effort to improve the reliability of the system, futures contracts were developed, which were standardized for quality, quantity, and time and place for…….. of the agricultural products that were being traded.

Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME) pioneered the first…….. futures contracts in 1972. In March 2003, the total………value of……. trading at CME was U.S. $347.5 billion. Currency futures are……… on the………. cash and forward exchange rates.

A futures contract is a legally………. contract to buy or sell a commodity or financial………. at a certain price at a specified date in the future. Futures markets thrive because they attract two types of………: hedgers and speculators. Hedgers, such as producers and processors of commodity products, seek to protect against adverse changes in the…….. cash price that may impact their business. Speculators include investors and traders who want to……..from price changes. Speculators accept the price…….. and……… that hedgers wish to avoid. Futures markets provide the forum in which speculators can buy or sell contracts quickly and – just as quickly —…… their…….. to react to market changes.

At CME, a U.S. government-regulated marketplace, currency futures trade via……. on the CME trading floor and on CME’s electronic trading platform. These CME FX markets are integrated by floor traders via wireless…….. to provide customers with efficient, fluid access to both pricing pools.

CME benefits foreign exchange participants, including………, large banks, hedge funds and……… All of these players come together at CME to speculate and hedge on currency market……….

CME delivers efficient………. trading venues for rapid FX trade execution supported and monitored by experienced industry professionals. CME FX customers access…….. markets, efficient…….. services, and 24-hour-a-day customer support. Futures commission merchants facilitate customer trading at CME in exchange for brokerage…….

Most currency contracts at CME are traded on the March quarterly cycle and go through a…….. delivery process four times a year on the third Wednesday of March, June, September and December. However, the Mexican peso and the South African rand are traded on all 12 calendar months. There are two……. contracts – the Brazilian real, traded on all twelve calendar months, and the Russian ruble, traded on the March quarterly cycle.

Source: www.cme.com

Terms:

E-trading, fluctuations, underlying, physical, positions, «open outcry», liquid, fees, marketplace, FX, cash-settled, risks, clearing, individual investors, transactions, traders, contracts, negotiated, counterparties, delivery, currency, notional, derivatives, interbank, binding, instrument, profit, rewards, exit, transparent, MNCs

Exercise 5. Translate into English.

Портрет Группы ММВБ

ММВБ – крупнейшая универсальная биржа в России, странах СНГ и Восточной Европы

В настоящее время Группа ММВБ, интегрирующая на единой технологической платформе торговую и расчетные системы, занимает центральное место в инфраструктуре российского рынка капитала. В Группу входят ЗАО ММВБ, Фондовая биржа ММВБ, Национальная товарная биржа, Расчетная палата ММВБ, Национальный депозитарный центр, Национальный клиринговый центр, региональные биржи и др. Они осуществляют торговое, расчетно-клиринговое и депозитарное обслуживание около 1500 ведущих российских банков и брокерских компаний – участников биржевого рынка как в Москве, так и в крупных финансово-промышленных центрах России.

История Группы начиналась в первой половине 1990-х годов, когда в ходе рыночных реформ ведущими российскими банками и Банком России была учреждена Московская межбанковская валютная биржа (ММВБ), изначально ориентированная на организацию торгов иностранной валютой. С первых дней работы биржевого валютного рынка и поныне курс доллара на ММВБ является индикатором проводимых в стране экономических реформ.

В настоящее время на ММВБ функционируют несколько ключевых рынков: валютный – с 1992 г., рынок государственных облигаций – с 1993 г., рынок производных финансовых инструментов – с 1996 г., рынок акций – с 1997 г., рынок корпоративных и региональных облигаций – с 1999 г., денежный рынок – с 2004 г. Внедрив в процессе развития современную электронную торгово-депозитарную систему, ММВБ стала универсальной финансовой биржей, на основе которой создана общенациональная система торгов на всех основных сегментах финансового рынка. Это и стало основой Группы ММВБ, которой удалось главное – создать рыночные механизмы определения курса российского рубля и привлечения инвестиций в экономику страны. Практически за эти годы была построена инфраструктура национального рынка капиталов с использованием наиболее передовых биржевых и информационных технологий.

По совокупному объему торгов (в 2005 г. – $ 925 млрд, среднедневной объем сделок – $ 3,7 млрд) ММВБ является крупнейшей биржей в России, странах СНГ и Восточной Европы. В настоящее время под эгидой Международной ассоциации бирж стран СНГ (МАБ СНГ) реализуется проект создания условий для формирования интегрированного организованного фондового рынка на технологической основе национальных бирж стран Содружества.

Основные направления деятельности ММВБ. Валюта

Торги иностранной валютой на ММВБ проходят в системе электронных торгов (СЭЛТ), которые объединяют в рамках единой торговой сессии восемь межбанковских валютных бирж. С 1992 г. Центральный банк РФ устанавливает официальный курс российского рубля с учетом результатов валютных торгов на ММВБ. Суммарный объем сделок с иностранной валютой в 2005 г. составил 592 млрд долл. США. В настоящее время на валютном рынке ММВБ создана эффективная система управления рисками, позволяющая гарантировать своевременное исполнение обязательств всеми участниками торгов. Одним из элементов этой системы является принцип «платеж против платежа» (payment versus payment), в соответствии с которым ММВБ осуществляет расчеты с участником торгов только после исполнения им своих обязательств. Основными торгуемыми валютами на ММВБ являются доллар США и евро. Членами секции валютного рынка ММВБ являются свыше 530 кредитных организаций. В рамках Национальной валютной ассоциации (НВА) биржа участвует в разработке и внедрении «Стандартов работы на внутреннем валютном и денежном рынках».

Источник: www.micex.ru

Lesson 28
Stock Exchanges

Read and translate the text and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

Getting to Know Stock Exchanges

A stock exchange does not own shares. Instead, it acts as a sort of high-tech flea market where buyers connect with sellers. Every public stock trades on one of several possible exchanges such as the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) or American Stock Exchange (AMEX).

How Does It All Start?

The primary function of an exchange is to provide liquidity (the ease with which securities can be bought and sold without wide price fluctuations); in other words, to give sellers a place to «liquidate» their share holdings.

Stocks first become available on an exchange after a company conducts its initial public offering (IPO). In an IPO, a company sells shares to an initial set of public shareholders (a.k.a. the primary market). After the IPO «floats» shares into the hands of public shareholders, these shares can be sold and purchased on an exchange (a.k.a. the secondary market).

The exchange tracks the flow of orders for each stock, and this flow of supply and demand sets the price of the stock. Depending on the type of brokerage account you have, you may be able to view this flow of price action. For example, if you see that the «bid price» on a stock is $40, this means somebody is telling the exchange that he or she is willing to buy the stock for $40. At the same time you might see that the «ask price» is $41, which means somebody else is willing to sell the stock for $41. The difference between the two is the bid-ask spread.

Auction Exchanges – NYSE and Amex

The NYSE and AMEX are both primarily auction based, which means specialists are physically present on the exchanges’ trading floors. Each specialist «specializes» in a particular stock, buying and selling the stock in a verbal auction. These specialists are under competitive threat by electronic-only exchanges that claim to be more efficient (that is, execute faster trades and exhibit smaller bid-ask spreads) by eliminating human intermediaries.

The NYSE is the largest and most prestigious exchange. Its listed companies represent about $18 trillion in market capitalization. AMEX is a smaller but quite prestigious exchange. AMEX also has a history of innovating: it pioneered the concept of exchange traded funds and it has the second largest options trading market.

New York Stock Exchange

Milestones. The NYSE traces its origins to a founding agreement in 1792. The NYSE registered as a national securities exchange with the SEC on October 1, 1934. The Governing Committee was the primary governing body until 1938, at which time the Exchange hired its first paid president and created a thirty-three member Board of Governors. The Board included Exchange members, non-member partners from New York and out-of-town firms, as well as public representatives.

In 1971, the Exchange was incorporated as a not-for-profit organization. In 1972, the members voted to replace the Board of Governors with a twenty-five member Board of Directors, comprised of a Chairman and CEO, twelve representatives of the public, and twelve representatives from the securities industry.

Subject to the approval of the Board, the Chairman may appoint a President, who would serve as a director. Additionally, at the Board’s discretion, they may elect an Executive Vice-Chairman, who would also serve as a director.

The Auction Market. The NYSE is an agency auction market. It means that trading at the NYSE takes place by open bids and offers by Exchange members, acting as agents for institutions or individual investors. Buy and sell orders meet directly on the trading floor, and prices are determined by the interplay of supply and demand.

At the NYSE, each listed stock is assigned to a single post where the specialist manages the auction process. NYSE members bring all orders for NYSE-listed stocks to the Exchange floor either electronically or by a floor broker. As a result, the flow of buy and sell orders for each stock is funneled to a single location.

This heavy stream of diverse orders is one of the great strengths of the Exchange since it provides liquidity. When an investor’s transaction is completed, the best price will have been exposed to a wide range of would-be buyers and sellers .

Benefits of NYSE. Listing on the NYSE affords companies great credibility because they must meet initial listing requirements and also comply annually with maintenance requirements. For example, to remain listed, NYSE companies must keep their price above $1 and their market capitalization above $50 million.

Furthermore, investors trading on the NYSE benefit from a set of minimum protections. Among several of the requirements that the NYSE has enacted, the following two are especially significant:

1. Companies must get shareholder approval for any equity incentive plan. In the past, companies were allowed to sidestep shareholder approval if an equity incentive plan met certain criteria; this, however, prevented shareholders from knowing how many stock options were available for future grant.

2. A majority of the members of the board of directors must be independent. Furthermore, the compensation committee must be entirely composed of independent directors, and the audit committee must include at least one person who possesses «accounting or financial expertise».

How a Stock is Bought and Sold. This chart is a detailed explanation of how a stock is traded. It illustrates how one transaction looks from three different perspectives – the buyer, seller and the stock market professionals who execute the trade.

Market Regulation. Every transaction made at the NYSE is under continuous surveillance during the trading day. The NYSE is the most active self-regulator in the securities industry. Regulations protect the integrity of the marketplace, member firms, and, most importantly, the customer.

StockWatch, a computer system that searches for unusual trading patterns, alerts NYSE regulators to possible insider trading abuses or other prohibited trading practices. NYSE’s other regulatory activities include the supervision of member firms to enforce compliance with financial and operational requirements, periodic checks on broker’s sales practices, and the continuous monitoring of specialist operations.

NASDAQ (an Electronic Exchange)

The NASDAQ is sometimes called «screen-based» because buyers and sellers are connected only by computers over a telecommunications network. Market makers, also known as dealers, carry their own inventory of stock. They stand ready to buy and sell NASDAQ stocks, and they are required to post their bid and ask prices. Although the NYSE has a far greater total market capitalization, NASDAQ has surpassed the NYSE in the number of both listed companies and shares traded.

NASDAQ has listing and governance requirements that are similar but slightly less stringent than those of the NYSE. For example, a stock must maintain a price of $1 and the value of the public float must be at least $1.1 million. If a company does not maintain these requirements, it can be delisted to one of the OTC markets.

NASDAQ Small Cap

NASDAQ has a separate «tier» for small capitalization companies; the average market cap of the 685 companies listed in this tier at the end of 2003 was about $60. This is an excellent exchange for investors interested in smaller companies because the NASDAQ Small Cap also has listing and governance requirements.

Electronic Communication Networks (ECNs)

ECNs are part of a class of exchange called alternative trading systems (ATS). ECNs trade NASDAQ-listed stocks, but they connect buyers and sellers directly. Because they allow for direct connection, ECNs bypass the market makers. You can think of them as an alternative means to trade stocks listed on the NASDAQ and, increasingly, other exchanges as well (such as the NYSE or foreign exchanges).

There are several innovative and entrepreneurial ECNs, and they are generally good for customers because they pose a competitive threat to traditional exchanges, and therefore push down transaction costs. Currently, ECNs do not really serve individual investors; they are mostly of interest to institutional investors.

Over-the-Counter (OTC)

OTC refers to markets other than the organized exchanges described above. OTC markets generally list small companies, and often these companies have «fallen off» to the OTC market because they were de-listed from NASDAQ. Some individual investors will not even consider buying OTC stocks due to the extra risks involved. On the other hand, some strong companies trade on the OTC. In fact, several strong companies have deliberately switched to OTC markets to avoid the administrative burden and costly fees that accompany regulatory laws such as the Sarbanes-Oxley Act.

There are two OTC markets:

Over-the-Counter Bulletin Board (OTCBB) is an electronic community of market makers. Companies that fall off the NASDAQ often end up here. On the OTCBB, there are no «quantitative minimums» (no minimum annual sales or assets required to list).

Companies that list on the pink sheets (i.e. less than 300 shareholders) are not required to register with the SEC. Liquidity is often minimal. Also, keep in mind that these companies are not required to submit quarterly 10Qs.

Source: Investopedia, September 24, 2004, David Harper, Contributing Editor

Essential Vocabulary

1.public stock – акция публичной компании

2. New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) – Нью-Йоркская фондовая биржа

3. American Stock Exchange (AMEX) – Американская фондовая биржа

4. primary market – первичный рынок

5. float n – чеки в процессе инкассации; число акций корпорации, выпущенных на рынок; банкноты и монеты в кассе

float (a company) v – организовать новую компанию и выпустить ее акции на рынок

6. a.k.a. (also known as) – также известный как

7. secondary market – вторичный рынок

8. brokerage account – брокерский счет

9. trading floor – торговый зал

10. exchange traded funds (ETC) – фонды, которыми торгуют на бирже

11. Board of Governors – Совет управляющих

12. incorporation n – инкорпорация; процесс регистрации юридического лица в качестве корпорации властями данного штата (США)

incorporate v – создать и зарегистрировать корпорацию; включать, придавать юридический статус

13. not-for-profit organization – некоммерческая организация

14. agency auction market – агентский аукционный рынок

15. maintenance requirements – минимальный уровень средств, который должен поддерживаться на маргинальном счете клиента у брокера

16. compensation committee – комитет по вознаграждению

17. audit committee – комитет по аудиту

18. floor broker – брокер в зале биржи

19. consolidated tape – консолидированная лента

20. abuse n – нарушение, злоупотребление

abuse v – нарушать, злоупотреблять

21. delisting n – лишение котировки

delist v – лишать котировки

22. small capitalization (cap) – компания, которая по уровню капитализации на данном рынке считается малой

23. Electronic Communication Network (ECN) – сеть электронных коммуникаций

24. alternative trading system (ATS) – альтернативная торговая система

25. over-the-counter (OTC) market – внебиржевой рынок ценных бумаг

26. pink sheets – список акций и их цен на внебиржевом рынке

27. 10Q form – квартальный отчет корпорации, чьи акции котируются на биржах, перед Комиссией по ценным бумагам и биржам

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. What are the functions of an exchange? 2. How did NYSE evolve over the years? 3. What are the advantages of the agency auction market? 4. What are the benefits of NYSE? 5. How are stocks bought and sold at NYSE? 6. What does market regulation mean in NYSE’s context? 7. What are the key characteristics of NASDAQ? 8. What are ECNs? 9. Why do some individual investors prefer not to buy OTC stocks?

Exercise 2*. Which of the following statements are not correct and why?

1. A stock exchange owns shares of companies listed there. 2. The exchange tracks the flow of orders for each stock, and this flow of supply and demand sets the price of the stock. 3. In an agency auction market the share price is determined by a dealer who buys and sells out of inventory. 4. Investors trading on the NYSE have no protection against abuses. 5. Buyers and sellers at NASDAQ operate the trading floor. 6. Currently, ECNs do not really serve individual investors; they are mostly of interest to institutional investors. 7. Individual investors prefer to buy OTC stocks because of high possible returns.

Exercise 3*. Find terms in the text that match definitions given below and make sentences of your own with each term.

1. an individual or firm that acts as an intermediary, putting together buyers and sellers for a fee or commission

2. an individual or firm that acts as a principal or counterpart to a transaction

3. all information needed regarding the exchange and regulations for a security

4. the ability to meet obligations and if necessary convert assets into cash or its equivalent

5. an electronic quote system providing prices to participants about actively traded common stocks

6. any transaction that is not conducted over an exchange

7. securities trading market for previously issued financial instruments in the primary market

8. a federal agency that regulates the U.S. financial markets and the securities industry

9. the process by which a trade is entered into the books and records of the counterparts to a transaction

Exercise 4*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

Policing the Securities Market: An Overview of the SEC

Shortly after the……. crash of 1929, a……. body called the……. was born. Its goal was to restore investor confidence and faith in a financial sector that was notorious for…….. activities……. credit and……… investments. Two significant proposals by the U.S. Congress, the Securities Act of 1933 and the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, led the way to the formation of the SEC and, ultimately, a……. financial……. under government……… The aim of both of these acts was to protect investors from any indiscretions that could arise from:

Questionable……. companies.

Dishonest and unscrupulous individuals dealing in the…….. markets.

The SEC is divided into four main…….. They work together, but have specific areas in which they mandate and ensure……. These departments are Corporate Finance, Market Regulation, Investment Management and Enforcement.

Division of Corporate Finance

This division is responsible for…….. the……. documents that are required to be……. with the SEC by U.S. public companies. Meant to increase……… so that investors are able to make informed decisions, the…….. require companies to provide prudent and truthful disclosure of financial and…….. information, i.e. any information pertaining to a particular business that might be relevant to an investor’s decision to buy, sell or hold the security.

The documents that companies are required to file include the registration statements for public………, quarterly and annual filings (Forms 10-Q and 10-K), annual…….. to shareholders, documents detailing……… and…….. materials sent out to shareholders before……

Division of Market Regulation

This division establishes and maintains…. orderly and efficient markets by regulating the participants in the securities industry. These participants range from the largest clearing corporations and exchanges, which are also known as……., to the various……. firms and investment houses. In short, the Division of Market Regulation establishes the……. of the investment industry.

This division also interprets any proposed changes to existing regulations and reviews any……. over the operations of the securities industry. It maintains constant…….. of market activity to ensure that no policies are being manipulated.

Division of Investment Management

As…….. of the investment management industry, this division ensures the preservation of all rules affecting investment companies and their…….. To make certain that all rules and regulations are being upheld, the SEC requires that all investment companies and federally……… investment advisors file the appropriate documents. More specifically, this division looks at public……. and laws, and makes changes to existing rules if circumstances provide reason to do so.

Division of Enforcement

Working closely with the other three divisions, this group investigates possible……. of securities laws and provides recommendations when further action is needed. Keep in mind that the division of enforcement has only civil enforcement authority; it must cooperate with different………. agencies such as the FBI or local police to bring about…….. charges.

Common violations include………… misrepresentation, deliberate omission of significant information regarding public company filings, market manipulation, violation of……. duties and any related disturbances that affect the smooth operation of the U.S. securities market and the market’s…….

Source: October 21, 2005 (www.investopedia.com)

Terms:

M&As, fiduciary, disagreements, law-enforcement, surveillance, broker-dealer, self-regulating organizations, stock market, filings, regulator, advisors, material, SEC, fraudulent, criminal, easy, insider trading, integrity, hazardous, structured, industry, supervision, public, securities, AGMs, divisions, compliance, overseeing, disclosure, filed, offerings, reports, proxy voting, rules, overseers, registered, regulations, violations, transparency, fair

Exercise 5. Translate into English.

NYSE акционируется

Биржа станет публичной компанией

Старейшая в мире Нью-Йоркская фондовая биржа в январе должна слиться с Archipelago Holdings и стать публичной компанией. Эксперты считают, что объем торгов на объединенной бирже вырастет космически, но ждать выдающихся результатов от ее акций на первых порах не стоит.

Вчера 1366 членов NYSE голосовали за слияние с электронной Archipelago, владеющей Тихоокеанской фондовой биржей. Если сделка состоится (для одобрения необходимо набрать две трети голосов), появится публичная компания NYSE Group стоимостью $3,5 млрд, в которой 70% акций получат члены NYSE и 30% – акционеры Archipelago.

Первое время для акций NYSE Group будет трудным, предупреждают аналитики. С 20 апреля, когда было объявлено о сделке, акции Archipelago подорожали в три раза. По мнению экспертов, этот рост связан с ожиданиями прибыли в объединенной компании. К тому же бизнес Archipelago в этом году показывает не лучшие результаты, а часть членов NYSE намерены продать акции объединенной компании более чем на $1 млрд буквально через несколько недель после завершения сделки.

По данным Thomson Financial, трое из шести аналитиков, оценивающих акции Archipelago, присвоили им рекомендацию «держать», еще трое – «продавать». Целевая цена этих бумаг, которую дают четверо из шести, колеблется от $26 до $38, что гораздо ниже сегодняшних котировок Archipelago, переваливших за $60. Новая NYSE «столкнется с огромной конкуренцией», поясняет Ричард Репетто из Sandler O’Neill, понизивший рекомендацию с «держать» до «продавать».

Между тем с тех пор как Ричард Герр из Keefe, Bruyette & Woods в мае понизил рекомендацию по акциям Archipelago с «покупать» до «держать», они взлетели на 80%. Членство в NYSE тоже сильно подорожало: с $1,62 млн до объявления о сделке с Archipelago до сегодняшних $4 млн. Но рынок имеет собственную точку зрения. Аналитики основываются «на том, что есть сейчас, а инвесторы – на том, что будет», говорит портфельный управляющий Томас Колдуэлл, которому на NYSE принадлежит 41-е место. Он намерен остаться акционером NYSE Group в течение нескольких лет.

Эксперты также обращают внимание на крайне высокую конкуренцию в секторе, особенно со стороны NASDAQ Stock Market и региональных площадок, в которые стали много инвестировать Morgan Stanley, UBS и Fidelity Investments. Впервые за несколько десятилетий объем торгов на NYSE акциями из ее листинга упал ниже 75%. NYSE и NASDAQ стараются отобрать друг у друга как можно больше сделок с акциями из «чужого» листинга. NYSE рассчитывает, что сделка с Archipelago поможет переманить с NASDAQ небольшие компании, а NASDAQ, у которой комиссия ниже, пытается увести с NYSE крупный бизнес.

Пять крупнейших акционеров Archipelago, владеющие 60% акций, уверены, что после объединения общий объем торгов на NYSE в 2006 г. увеличится космически. Сейчас примерно 14% сделок на NYSE осуществляются через электронную систему (по сравнению с 10% в 2004 г.), но большая часть по-прежнему ведется в биржевом зале с участием живых трейдеров. Джеми Селуэй, бывший экономист Archipelago, который теперь руководит брокерской фирмой White Cap Trading, считает, что с ростом торгов через электронную систему общий объем торгов на NYSE удвоится. А некоторые инвесторы, по его словам, ожидают пятикратного роста.

Источник: WSJ, 6.12.2005, Арон Луккетти

Lesson 29
Equity Securities

Read and translate the text and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

Introduction to Securities

Originally the term «securities» was used to denote security interests (such as mortgages and charges) supporting the payment of a debt or other obligation. Then, companies and government agencies began to raise capital from the public using secured debt obligations, which came to be known as «securities». As shares became more readily transferrable, their functional similarity to debt securities became clearer, and both forms of investment became known as «securities».

Uses of Securities

For the issuer:

Issuers of securities include commercial companies, government agencies, local authorities and international and supranational organisations (such as the World Bank). Repackaged securities are usually issued by a company established for the purpose of the repackaging – called a special purpose vehicle (SPV).

New capital: Commercial enterprises have traditionally used securities as a means of raising new capital. Securities are an attractive alternative to bank loans, which tend to be relatively expensive and short term. Also, the bank may seek a measure of control over the business of the borrower via financial covenants.

Repackaging: Recently, securities have been issued to repackage existing assets. In a traditional securitization, a financial institution may wish to remove assets from its balance sheet in order to achieve regulatory capital efficiencies or to accelerate its receipt of cash flow from the original assets. Alternatively, an intermediary may wish to make a profit by acquiring financial assets and repackaging them in a way which makes them more attractive to investors.

For the holder:

Investors in securities may be retail, i.e. members of the public. The greatest part in terms of volume of investment is wholesale, i.e. by financial institutions acting on their own account, or on behalf of clients. Important institutional investors include investment banks, insurance companies, pension funds and other managed funds.

The traditional function of the purchase of securities is investment, with the view to receiving income and/or achieving capital gain. Debt securities generally offer a higher rate of interest than bank deposits, and equities may offer the prospect of capital growth. Equity investment may also offer control of the business of the issuer.

The last decade has seen an enormous growth in the use of securities as collateral. Collateral arrangements are divided into two broad categories, namely security interests and outright collateral transfers.

Debt and Equity

Securities are traditionally divided into debt securities (lesson 30) and equities.

Equity:

An equity is an ordinary share in a company. The holder of an equity is a shareholder, owning a share, or fractional part of the issuer. Stock is the capital raised by a corporation, through the issuance and sale of shares. A shareholder is any person or organization which owns one or more shares of a corporation’s stock.

In British English, the word stock has another meaning in finance, referring to a bond. It can also be used more widely to refer to all kinds of marketable securities. Where a share of ownership is meant the word share is usually used in British English.

Ownership

The owners of a company may want additional capital to invest in new projects. They may also simply wish to reduce their holding, freeing up capital for their own private use. By selling shares they can sell part or all of the company to many part-owners. The purchase of one share entitles the owner of that share to literally share in the ownership of the company, a fraction of the decision-making power, and potentially a fraction of the profits, which the company may issue as dividends.

In the common case, where there are thousands of shareholders, it is impractical to have all of them making the daily decisions required in the running of a company. Thus, the shareholders will use their shares as votes in the election of BoD members.

Each share constitutes one vote (except in a cooperative society where every member gets one vote regardless of the number of shares they hold). Effective control rests with the majority shareholder (or shareholders acting in concert).

Shareholder Rights

Although owning 51% of shares means that you own 51% of the company, it does not give you the right to use a company’s building, equipment, or other property. This is because the company is considered a legal person and owns all its assets itself.

Owning shares does not mean responsibility for liabilities. If a company goes broke and has to default on loans, the shareholders are not liable in any way. However, all money obtained by converting assets into cash will be used to repay loans and other debts first, so that shareholders cannot receive any money unless and until creditors have been paid (most often the shareholders end up with nothing).

Buying

There are various methods of buying and financing stocks. The most common means is through a stock broker. There are many different stock brokers to choose from such as full service brokers or discount brokers. The full service brokers usually charge more per trade, but give investment advice or more personal service; the discount brokers offer little or no investment advice but charge less for trades. Another type would be a bank or credit union that may have a deal set up with a broker.

There are other ways of buying stock. One way is directly from the company itself. If at least one share is owned, most companies will allow the purchase of shares directly from the company through their investor’s relations departments. Another way to buy stock is through Direct Public Offerings which are sold by the company itself.

Selling

Selling stock is procedurally similar to buying stock. Generally, the investor wants to buy low and sell high (short selling), if not in that order although a number of reasons may induce an investor to sell at a loss. As with buying a stock, there is a transaction fee for the broker’s efforts in arranging the transfer of stock from a seller to a buyer. Importantly, on selling the stock, in jurisdictions that have them, capital gains taxes will have to be paid on the additional proceeds.

Types of Shares

There are several types of shares, including common stock, preferred stock, treasury stock, and dual class shares. Preferred stock have priority over common stock in the distribution of dividends and assets, and sometime have enhanced voting rights such as the ability to veto M&As or the right of first refusal when new shares are issued. A dual class equity structure has several classes of shares (for example Class A, Class B, and Class C) each with its own advantages and disadvantages. Treasury stock are shares that have been bought back from the public.

Hybrid securities combine characteristics of both debt and equity securities:

– preference shares form an intermediate class of security between equities and debt. If the issuer is liquidated, they carry the right to receive interest and/or a return of capital in priority to ordinary shareholders.

– convertibles are bonds which can be converted, at the election of the bondholder, into another sort of security such as equities.

– equity warrants are contractual entitlements to purchase shares on pre-determined terms. They are often issued together with bonds or existing equities, but are detachable from them and separately tradeable.

Securities Markets

The securities markets can be divided into the primary markets and the secondary markets. Primary markets comprise new securities sold to their first holders. The issue of new securities is commonly known as an IPO (see lesson 31).

Secondary markets often consist of stock exchanges (see lesson 28). The International Securities Market Association (ISMA) is the trade association for the banks and other investment institutions that are active in the secondary markets.

In the primary markets, securities may be offered to the public in a public offer. Alternatively, they may be offered privately to a limited number of persons in a private placement. Often a combination of the two is used. The distinction between the two is important to securities regulation and company law.

Legal Nature of Securities: Bearer and Registered Securities

Bearer securities. Bearer securities are issued in the form of a paper instrument. On the face of the instrument is written the promise of the issuer to pay the bearer of the instrument. In the absence of computerisation, bearer securities constitute tangible assets. They are transferred by delivering the instrument from person to person. In some cases, transfer is by endorsement, or signing the back of the instrument, and delivery. Regulatory and fiscal authorities sometimes regard bearer securities negatively, as they may be used to facilitate the evasion of regulatory restrictions and tax.

Registered securities. In the case of registered securities, certificates bearing the name of the holder are issued, but these merely represent the securities. A person does not automatically acquire legal ownership by having possession of the certificate. The issuer maintains a register (usually maintained by an appointed registrar) in which details of the holder of the securities are entered and updated as appropriate. In recent years, registers have generally become computerised. Unlike bearer securities, registered securities comprise a bundle of intangible rights including the right of the shareholder to share in all the assets of a company, subject to all the liabilities of the company. A transfer of registered securities is effected by amending the register.

Fungible and non-fungible securities. The terms «fungible» and «non-fungible» relate to the way in which securities are held. If an asset is fungible, when such an asset is placed with a custodian, the custodian at the end of the custody arrangement may return assets equivalent to the original asset, rather than the identical asset.

Stock split refers to a corporate action that increases the shares in a public company. The price of the shares are adjusted so that the before and after market capitalization of the company remains the same and dilution does not occur. 2-for-1, 3-for-1, and 3-for-2 splits are the most common but any ratio is possible. Sometimes investors will receive cash payments in lieu of fractional shares.

It is often claimed that stock splits in themselves lead to higher stock prices, however, research does not bear this out. What is true is that stock splits are usually initiated after a large run up in share price. Momentum investing would suggest that such a trend would continue regardless of the stock split.

Source: Wikepidea

Essential Vocabulary

1. mortgage (Mort) n – ипотека, закладная, ипотечный кредит

mortgage v – закладывать

2. repackaging n – «переупаковка» (разделение ценной бумаги на элементы для продажи в качестве самостоятельных финансовых инструментов)

repackage v – «переупаковывать»

3. special purpose vehicle (SPV) – компания специального назначения

4. securitization n – «секьюритизация» (повышение роли различных ценных бумаг как форм заимствования по сравнению с банковскими кредитами; трансформация банковских кредитов в ценные бумаги; стирание различий между рынками банковских кредитов и ценных бумаг)

5. investment bank – инвестиционный банк

6. security interest – право на обеспечение

7. collateral transfer – передача обеспечения

8. marketable security – рыночные (легко реализуемые) ценные бумаги

9. entitlement n – право на что-либо

entitle (to) v – давать право на что-либо

10. vote n – голос

vote v – голосовать

voting a – голосующий

11. cooperative society – кооператив

12.majority shareholder – основной акционер

13. legal person – юридическое лицо

14. full service broker – брокер полного профиля

15. discount broker – «дисконтный» брокер

16. investor’s relations department – департамент по отношениям с инвесторами

17. direct public offer – прямое публичное предложение акций

18. short selling – «короткая» продажа

19. trasaction fee – гонорар за операцию

20. capital gains tax – налог на приращение капитала

21. treasury stock – казначейские акции

22. dual class share – «двойная акция»

23. right of first refusal – право первого отказа

24. preference share – привилегированная акция

25. convertible bond – конвертируемая облигация

26. equity warrant – облигационный варрант, дающий право на покупку акций заемщика по оговоренной цене

27. detach v – отделять, отцеплять, разъединять

detachable a – отделяемый, съемный, отрывной

28. International Securities Market Association (ISMA) – Ассоциация международного рынка ценных бумаг

29. bearer security – ценная бумага на предъявителя

30. registered security – именная ценная бумага

31. registrar n – реестродержатель

32. fungible security – взаимозаменяемая ценная бумага

33. non-fungible security – невзаимозаменяемая ценная бумага

34. custodian n – попечитель, финансовый агент, хранитель

custodial a – попечительский

35. stock split – сплит или расщепление акций

36. momentum n – импульс, движущая сила, толчок, темп

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. How did the term «security» evolve over the years? 2. Who are the usual issuers of securities? 3. What does securitization mean? 4. Why are securities used as collateral? 5. What is equity? 6. What is the relationship between ownership and control in a corporation? 7. What rights do shareholders enjoy? 8. How can shares be bought and sold? 9. What are the most common types of shares? 10. What is the difference between the primary and secondary market? 11. What is the difference between bearer and registered securities? 12. What are the advantages of the stock split?

Exercise 2. You are a strategic consultant hired by a Russian company that wants to create corporate structure similar to the one adopted by the leading Western companies. Using the following briefing materials, you have to explain to the founder of the company what positions should be created in the company.

The Basics of Corporate Structure

In an attempt to create a corporation where stockholders’ interests are looked after, many firms have implemented a two-tier corporate hierarchy. On the first tier is the board of directors: these individuals are elected by the shareholders of the corporation. On the second tier is the upper management: these individuals are hired by the BoD.

Board of Directors

Elected by the shareholders, the BoD is made up of two types of representatives. The first type involves individuals chosen from within the company. This can be a CEO, CFO, manager or any other person who works for the company on a daily basis. The other type of representative is chosen externally and is considered to be independent from the company. The role of the board is to monitor the managers of a corporation, acting as an advocate for stockholders. In essence, the BoD tries to make sure that shareholders’ interests are well served.

Board members can be divided into three categories:

Chairman – Technically the leader of the corporation, the chairman of the board is responsible for running the board smoothly and effectively. His or her duties typically include maintaining strong communication with the chief executive officer and high-level executives, formulating the company’s business strategy, representing management and the board to the general public and shareholders, and maintaining corporate integrity. A chairman is elected from the board of directors.

Inside directors – These directors are responsible for approving high-level budgets prepared by upper management, implementing and monitoring business strategy, and approving core corporate initiatives and projects. Inside directors are either shareholders or high-level management from within the company. Inside directors help provide internal perspectives for other board members. These individuals are also referred to as executive directors if they are part of company’s management team.

Outside directors. While having the same responsibilities as the inside directors in determining strategic direction and corporate policy, outside directors are different in that they are not directly part of the management team. The purpose of having outside directors is to provide unbiased and impartial perspectives on issues brought to the board.

Management team

As the other tier of the company, the management team is directly responsible for the day-to-day operations (and profitability) of the company.

Chief Executive Officer (CEO): As the top manager, the CEO is typically responsible for the entire operations of the corporation and reports directly to the chairman and Board of Directors. It is the CEO’s responsibility to implement board decisions and initiatives and to maintain the smooth operation of the firm, with the assistance of senior management. Often, the CEO will also be designated as the company’s president and therefore also be one of the inside directors on the BoD.

Chief Operations Officer (COO): Responsible for the corporation’s operations, the COO looks after issues related to marketing, sales, production and personnel. More hands-on than the CEO, the COO looks after day-to-day activities while providing feedback to the CEO. The COO is often referred to as a senior vice president.

Chief Finance Officer (CFO): Also reporting directly to the CEO, the CFO is responsible for analyzing and reviewing financial data, reporting financial performance, preparing budgets and monitoring expenditures and costs. The CFO is required to present this information to the board of directors at regular intervals and provide this information to shareholders and regulatory bodies such as SEC. The CFO routinely checks the corporation’s financial health and integrity.

Source: Investopedia, February 28, 2003

Exercise 3*. Find terms in the text that match definitions given below and make sentences of your own with each term.

1. something given to secure a loan or as a guarantee of performance

2. a party that has physical possession of a financial instrument

3. a market of debt and equity instruments that mature in more than 1 year

4. form of business ownership that is a legal entity on its own and puts stockholders and the Board of Directors in control. Owners have limited liability for its actions

5. the ownership interest in a business remaining after its liabilities are deducted

6. securities that are easily sold

7. an unregistered direct sale of securities by a company to limited institutional investors

8. a security registered in the name of an investor, who is the only party that can collect interest and principal or sell the security

9. securities trading market for previously issued financial instruments in the primary market

10. trading securities in organized exchanges and over the counter markets

11. сompany issued securities used for financing and backed by selected financial assets

12. ownership of a corporation through the purchase of shares

Exercise 4*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

Spotlight on American Depository Receipts

Until recently, participation in Russia’s lucrative but…… equity market remained a mystery to the international financial……… open to only the most……. emerging market investors. However, in 1995 the Russian electric……. Mosenergo issued the first Russian……. in conjunction with the Bank of New York, thus beginning a trend which has allowed a number of Russian firms to make their first foray into the American capital markets.

Issuing and Trading ADRs

An American Depository Receipt is issued by an American……. institution, denominated in dollars, and represents one or more shares of a foreign corporate……. which has been deposited with a local……. in the home country of the entity.

In the case of Russia, the ADR is created by the US depository institution and……. to the US purchaser. The…….. proceeds as follows. The purchaser’s broker buys the…….. Russian……. through a licensed Russian broker, and subsequently directs that the stock be deposited with a custodial……. of the ADR issuing bank. The broker…….. the transaction will…….. the USD received from the purchaser into rubles and pay the local broker for the shares. On the day that the shares are……. to the custodian, this institution…….. the depository bank. When notification is received, the ADRs are issued and delivered to the broker initiating the transaction, who in turn delivers the securities to the investor. Thus, one of the depository institution’s most crucial roles is that of stock…….. agent and………

Once an ADR is issued, it can be freely sold to other investors in the US in an…… transaction…… of an ADR works in a fashion similar to the purchase transaction. The owner’s broker may sell the ADR to another US investor in an intra-market transaction, or may sell the shares in Russia in a……. transaction.

Once again going through the local Russian broker, the US broker sells the shares and then…….. the ADRs to the depository bank. The depository institution……. the ADRs and instructs the custodian to deliver the shares held to the local broker who will arrange for the conversion of rubles into dollars to be returned to the ADR…..

Level 1 ADRs

As the quality of…… information disseminated by Russian firms is rudimentary and confusing, the majority of companies issuing ADRs utilize the Level 1 program, which is the simplest method for a foreign company to gain access to the American capital market.

Level 1 ADRs trade……. and consequently the issuing company is…….. from……. with many of the reporting and……… requirements set forth in the 1934 Securities Exchange Act. This exemption allows the foreign issuer to enjoy the benefits of a…… security while continuing to use the current financial reporting process. To issue a Level 1 ADR, a Russian company must do the following:

File its financial statements (utilizing current reporting methods rather than the……. standards) in English with the……., as well as provide information as requested to appropriate Russian…….. authorities.

…… a standard contract with the issuing depository institution enumerating the rights and responsibilities of each party.

File a……… registration statement with the SEC.

Level 2 and 3 ADRs

Level 2 and 3 ADR programs stipulate that a Russian firm should meet additional reporting requirements for…….. on NASDAQ or other……. The Level 2 program envisages registration under the 1934 Securities Exchange Act, whereas the Level 3 program entails a full public…….. with the concomitant reporting requirements, including three years of financial statements according to US GAAP standards and a…….. process similar to that essential for any US…… offering.

Rule 144A Private Placements

Rule 144A allows Russian firms to…… capital via private……. to…….. institutional buyers (QIBs) while avoiding the high costs and extensive disclosure requirements essential for Level 2 and 3 programs. Once these unregistered securities are placed with…… purchasers, they may not be sold to the public for at least two years, although they may be sold to other qualified buyers.

Benefits of ADRs

The issue of American Depository Receipts has a number of advantages for both Russian…… and the investing public. Via an ADR, a Russian company may gain its first introduction to international capital markets while raising public……. of the firm and reaching a much broader range of investors. An ADR issue will signal to the market that a firm actively seeks out and values Western investors, and is willing to work towards meeting international…….. of financial disclosure. Issue of an ADR can also increase……. for a company’s shares in the domestic market, while positively impacting the domestic share price.

Source: Capital Markets Report

Terms:

GAAP, offering, awareness, listing, surrenders, standards, liquidity, due dilligence, convert, Form 6, exempted, volatile, intra-market, qualified, publicly-traded, placements, OTC, community, SEC, holder, sophisticated, utility, depository, entity, custodian, issued, transaction, underlying, securities, agent, initiating, delivered, notifies, transfer, registrar, cancellation, cross-border, cancels, financial, compliance, disclosure, regulatory, execute, exchanges, public, eligible, issuers, raise, ADRs

Exercise 5. Translate into English.

В Нью-Йорк за $300 миллиардами

Не исключено, что через два года акции «Газпрома» можно будет купить в Нью-Йорке. Как стало известно «Ведомостям», монополия думает пройти листинг на NYSE и выпустить ADR второго уровня. Это приблизит «Газпром» к заветной цели – капитализации в $300 млрд, но вынудит быть откровеннее с инвесторами.

В пятницу к берегу американского штата Мэриленд причалил первый танкер с сжиженным газом (liquefied natural gas) «Газпрома». Вместе с газом монополия хочет привести на американский рынок и свои акции. Об этом на пресс-конференции в Нью-Йорке заявил заместитель председателя правления «Газпрома» Александр Медведев. По его словам, «Газпром» хотел бы вывести свои бумаги на Нью-Йоркскую фондовую биржу (NYSE) в течение двух-трех лет, после либерализации рынка ее акций. «Американский финансовый рынок очень привлекателен, – цитируют топ-менеджера информагентства, – здесь самая большая ликвидность, самый разнообразный состав инвесторов».

Компания может пройти листинг на NYSE, а потом выпускать на той же площадке ADR второго уровня, уточнил менеджер «Газпрома». Он говорит, что от идеи выпустить ADR третьего уровня сразу пришлось отказаться – маловероятно, что правительство согласится на дополнительный выпуск акций. По законам США программы второго уровня предполагают включение АDR в листинг одной из ведущих американских бирж – NYSE, NASDAQ, AMEX. Менеджер «Газпрома» полагает, что на NYSE может обращаться 5—10% акций «Газпрома». Сейчас 4,5% акций компании торгуется в виде ADS на Лондонской бирже. Если «Газпром» пройдет процедуру листинга, он станет седьмой по счету российской компанией, бумаги которой можно купить на NYSE. Сейчас это расписки третьего уровня МТС, «Вимм-Билль-Данна», «ВымпелКома» и «Мечела», а также ADR второго уровня «Ростелекома» и «Татнефти».

«Газпром» отдает себе отчет в том, что за выход на NYSE ему придется откровенничать с американскими регулирующими органами, признает менеджер монополии. Компаниям, продвигающим ADR-2 и ADR-3, приходится вести финансовую отчетность в стандарте US GAAP, а «Газпром» использует международные стандарты отчетности (IAS). К эмитентам, бумаги которых торгуются на NYSE, предъявляются те же требования SEC по регистрации и раскрытию информации, что и к американским корпорациям. Сергей Глазер из инвестфонда Vostok Nafta напоминает, что по ним, в частности, руководитель компании несет личную ответственность за достоверность отчетности вплоть до уголовной. Это обеспечивает высокий уровень доверия инвесторов, но иногда создает трудности самим компаниям. Например, прошлым летом аудиторы из Ernst & Young несколько раз отказывались заверять отчетность «Татнефти» за 2003 г., так как она не соответствовала требованиям NYSE и SEC, и капитализация компании упала на 10%.

Наградой за откровенность «Газпрому» могут стать деньги американских инвесторов, которым их внутренние правила запрещают инвестировать за пределами США. В качестве такого инвестора Глазер приводит крупнейший госфонд США CalPERS, управляющий $180 млрд пенсионеров Калифорнии. Руководитель аналитического отдела «Атона» Стивен Дашевский добавляет, что фонды смогут покупать не только акции, но и облигации и евробонды «Газпрома». Сейчас они не имеют права покупать ADS монополии, которые торгуются на Лондонской фондовой бирже. А «Газпром» поставил перед собой амбициозную цель – по словам финдиректора монополии Владимира Круглова, через 3—5 лет приблизить капитализацию монополии к $300 млрд. В пятницу «Газпром» стоил около $94 млрд.

Менеджер «Газпрома» уверен, что и среди нынешних акционеров найдется много желающих конвертировать бумаги в ADR-2. Он думает, что часть своих акций в ADR второго уровня мог бы конвертировать Deutsche Bank и Объединенная финансовая группа, которая на 40% принадлежит немецкому банку. Под управлением ОФГ сейчас находится около 4% акций монополии, Deutsche Bank контролирует менее 2% акций «Газпрома». Получить комментарии банка и ОФГ не удалось. Vostok Nafta, владеющий 1,16% акций «Газпрома», мог бы конвертировать часть этих бумаг в ADR второго уровня, говорит Глазер.

Источник: Ведомости, 05.09.05

Lesson 30
Fixed Income Securities

Read and translate the text and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

A Stock Buyer’s Guide to Bond Investing

Some Bond Market Basics

As a stockholder, you are a part owner of a business, able to enjoy the unlimited upside potential – or downside risk – associated with a particular company. A bondholder, on the other hand, is a creditor, and bonds are known as debt securities.

When you purchase a bond, you are essentially lending money for a specific period of time, at a fixed rate of interest. Bonds are generally considered a more secure investment than stocks since bondholders have a senior claim to a company’s assets in the event of a corporate restructuring.

Bonds are issued by both the public and private sector. The former includes the U.S. government, as well as state and local municipalities. The latter comprises both privately held and publicly traded corporations. Bonds are a reliable alternative to banks and other lenders who might demand less attractive financing terms than the capital markets are able to provide, such as a higher rate of interest. Ultimately, this cost saving benefits both taxpayers and shareholders by lowering the borrower’s overall expenses.

Bonds are generally known as fixed-income securities since they pay a fixed rate of interest. As a result, falling interest rates make outstanding bonds more attractive, while conversely, rising interest rates cause fixed-income securities to lose principal value. Many investors like bonds because regardless of a bond’s fluctuating price during its lifetime, the principal of the bond is returned at face value when it matures.

Bonds of equal credit quality will generally provide investors with higher rates of return as maturity lengthens, since it is considered riskier to hold longer-dated securities than short-term instruments. Investors are also rewarded with progressively higher rates of return as credit quality declines to compensate for the additional risk.

Callable and Bullet Structures

Callable and bullet structures are common to most fixed-income securities. Bond issuers sell redeemable debt, known as callables, in order to give them the flexibility to purchase – or call – the bonds prior to maturity after a specified date. This makes good economic sense for the issuer in a falling interest rate environment since it then allows them to reissue the same amount of debt at a lower interest rate. However, if and when the securities are called, investors are handed back their original investment in cash and are faced with the less attractive option of reinvesting it in lower-yielding, higher-priced securities. This is known as reinvestment risk.

For investors determined to avoid reinvestment risk, noncallable bullets may be purchased. Bullets are bonds with a fixed maturity date and no call provisions. Though the rate of return on bullets will generally be lower than callable securities, the issuer cannot compel the bondholder to redeem the security prior to maturity.

Governments

The majority of public sector debt is issued by the federal government. The size of the market has rapidly contracted in recent years as the budget surplus continues to bolster buybacks of outstanding securities and promotes the reduction of new supply. Interest paid to holders of Government securities is exempt from state and local taxes.

Treasury Securities

Since the U.S. Treasury Department issues most government securities, bonds in this sector are commonly referred to as Treasuries. Given the remote possibility that the U.S. would ever default on its obligations, Treasuries are considered to be the safest of all fixed-income securities and serve as the benchmark utilized by bond investors .

The four most popular types of fixed-income securities issued by the U.S. Treasury are Bills, Notes, Bonds and TIPS (Treasury Inflation-Protected Securities). Bills have maturities of three months to one year, and are sold at a discount since the interest rate is equal to the difference between the purchase price and the principal amount an investor would receive at maturity (interest basically accrues to face value rather than being directly paid out to investors). Notes pay interest semi-annually and are issued in two-year, five-year and ten-year maturities. Bonds are issued with 30-year maturities and also pay semi-annual interest. TIPS provide bond investors with a hedge against inflation since they pay an interest rate that is periodically adjusted according to changes in the Consumer Price Index (CPI).

U.S. Treasury STRIPS (Separate Trading of Registered Interest and Principal of Securities)are also a popular government investment. Much like bills, STRIPS are sold at a discount to face value, since the interest accrues to the face value of the security rather than as a semi-annual payment to the bondholder. Unlike bills, though, STRIPS offer investors a wide range of longer-dated maturities to choose from.

Agencies

U.S. federal agencies, which are fully owned by the U.S. government, and Government-Sponsored Enterprises (GSEs), which are privately owned entities created by Congress, together issue debt securities known as Agencies. This implicit connection to the federal branch has led Agency structures to be considered second in quality only to U.S. Government securities. Agencies use the proceeds raised in the capital markets to provide funding for public policy purposes, such as housing, education and farming.

GSEs are the most active issuers in the Agency market. You might be familiar with the two largest shareholder-owned companies: Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac.

Mortgages

Mortgage-backed securities, commonly known as mortgages, are bonds created from mortgage loans. These loans are originated by a variety of financial institutions in order to provide financing for home loans and other real estate. Mortgage lenders typically package, or «pool», these loans and then sell them to mortgage-backed securities issuers. The bonds are generally issued in multiples of $1,000.

At approximately $2.5 trillion in outstanding securities, mortgages are now a major segment of the US bond market. Mortgage bonds generally retain high credit quality since most are either explicitly, or implicitly, backed by the federal government.

Mortgage securities are generally classified as either pass-throughsor Collateralised Mortgage Obligations (CMOs). Pass-throughs basically collect mortgage payments from homeowners and pass this cash flow onto investors. CMOs provide a more predictable payment stream than pass-throughs by creating separate «tranches», designed to meet different investment objectives.

Corporates

Public and private companies issue corporate bonds, commonly known as corporates in order to meet both short– and long-term financing needs. The proceeds from a bond sale are therefore used for a wide variety of purposes, such as for the purchase of new equipment, the funding of general operating expenses or for the financing of a company M&As. Corporates are typically issued in multiples of $1,000, have a maturity range between one and 30 years and pay semi-annual interest. The vast majority of corporate bonds are fully taxable.

Corporate Bond Credit Quality

Credit quality is the most important concern for corporate bond investors. Most corporates are assigned credit ratings by Moody’s and S&P. These ratings classify an issuer as «high-grade» or «high-yield». High-grade bonds are considered fairly conservative investments since these companies are deemed to be in good financial health and are unlikely to have trouble meeting their debt obligation. These bonds are rated from «Aaa» to «Baa» by Moody’s, and from «AAA» to «BBB» by S&P.

High-yield bonds are considered speculative since they are issued by companies with more credit risk. These bonds are rated on a scale from «Ba» to «C» by Moody’s, and from «BB» to «D» by S&P. These bonds pay a higher rate of interest – and have a potentially higher rate of return – than their high-grade counterparts. However, high-yield bonds are only appropriate for risk-tolerant investors.

Municipals

States, cities, counties and towns issue municipal bonds. The proceeds from bond sales are used for the building and maintenance of a variety of public works projects – such as for the construction of schools, roads, hospitals and sport stadiums.

There are two types of municipal securities: General Obligation (GO) and Revenue Bonds. GOs are backed by the full taxing authority of the issuer, while Revenue Bonds are backed by the income generated from the project being financed.

Since municipalities can vary in credit quality, most municipal bonds are assigned a credit rating from either Moody’s or Standard & Poor’s. However, municipal buyers have the luxury of opting for no credit risk. Today, approximately 40% of all new issuance is «insured» by a major municipal bond insurance company. Insured bonds automatically receive the highest «AAA/Aaa» ratings since the insurance company guarantees that if a municipality is not able to meet its debt obligations, it will provide the payments of principal and interest.

Municipals are not taxed by the federal government, and are generally exempt from state and local taxes for residents of the issuing state. Since municipals are exempt from federal income taxes, investors in the 28% tax bracket or above would typically receive better returns with municipal bonds in their taxable accounts than with other higher-yielding, taxable fixed-income securities.

Certificates of Deposit

Certificates of deposit, or CDs, are time deposits issued by a bank, which pay a fixed rate of interest for a specified period of time. Since CDs are FDIC-insured, up to a maximum of $100,000 (per depositor, per financial institution, including principal and interest combined in each insurable legal capacity), credit risk is not a concern. CDs are generally offered in multiples of $1,000, while «Jumbo» CDs are sold in $100,000 denominations. CDs may also contain call provisions. CDs may be purchased directly from a bank or brokerage firm.

Putting It All Together

There is only one way to begin building a bond portfolio that is right for you. In fact, it is no different from the advice that you might receive if you decided to construct a stock portfolio: Start with a plan that works.

The best strategies for bond investors are the laddered portfolio and the diversified portfolio approach. Regardless of the shape of the yield curve, your interest rate outlook or the performance of a particular sector, these two basic strategies will help prepare the proper foundation to meet your specific financial objectives.

In a laddered portfolio, bonds mature in sequence over a period of years. As each security matures, the proceeds are reinvested in the longest maturity «rung» of the ladder. This is a rather conservative approach, but it is widely and successfully employed by individual investors since it minimizes reinvestment and interest rate risk.

You may also construct a diversified portfolio. This method uses a wide variety of bond classes and structures. This approach is designed to garner incremental yield by taking on a variety of risks – many of which tend to cancel out one another over time.

Source: SalomonSmithBarney, 2002, www.citibank.com

Essential Vocabulary

1. upside potential – потенциал роста цены или курса

2. downside risk – риск падения цены или курса

3. bondholder n – владелец облигации

4. public sector – государственный сектор

5. municipality n – муниципалитет

6. privately held company – частная компания

7. fixed-income security – ценная бумага с фиксированным доходом

8. outstanding a – неоплаченный долг; ценные бумаги в обращении

9. face value – номинал

10. callable bond – отзывная облигация

11. bullet n – зд. безотзывная облигация

12. redemption (Red) n – погашение, выкуп

redeem v – погашать

redeemable a – погашаемый

13. buyback n – обратная покупка, выкуп

buy back v – выкупать

14. Treasury Department (US) – Казначейство США

15. bill n – переводной вексель (тратта), казначейский вексель; банкнота; счет; документ о передаче прав собственности на товар; свидетельство долга заемщика кредитору; билль (закон)

16. note n – краткосрочная ценная бумага; долговое обязательство; банкнота; письменное обязательство выплатить определенную сумму на оговоренных условиях

17. Treasury Inflation-Protected Security (TIPS) – казначейская облигация, защищенная от инфляции

18. accrual n – начисление

accrue v – начислять

19. hedge n – хедж, хеджирование

hedge v – хеджировать

20. Consumer Price Index (CPI) – индекс потребительских цен

21. Separate Trading of Registered Interest and Principal of Securities (STRIPS) – раздельная торговля основной суммой и купонами казначейских облигаций

22. Government-Sponsored Enterprise (GSE) – предприятия, созданные при поддержке правительства

23. Agencies n – ценные бумаги федеральных агентств США

24. Fannie Mae (Federal National Mortgage Association) – Федеральная национальная ипотечная ассоциация

25. Freddie Mac (Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation) – Федеральная корпорация жилищного ипотечного кредита

26. mortgage-backed securities (mortgages) – ценные бумаги, обеспеченные ипотекой

27. pass-through securities – «пропускающие» ценные бумаги

28. Сollateralized Mortgage Obligation (CMO) – обеспеченная ипотечная облигация

29. corporate bond (corporate) – корпоративная облигация

30. high-grade bond – облигация с высоким рейтингом

31. high-yield bond – высокодоходная облигация

32. risk-tolerant investor – инвестор, приемлющий риск

33. municipal bond – муниципальная облигация

34. General Obligation (GO) bond – облигация общих обязательств

35. revenue bond – доходная облигация

36. tax bracket – налоговый разряд

37. taxable а – налогооблагаемый

38. certificate of deposit (CD) – депозитный сертификат

39. Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) – Федеральная корпорация страхования депозитов (США)

40. jumbo CD – крупный депозитный сертификат

41. laddered portfolio – портфель-лестница

42. yield curve – кривая доходности

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. Why do investors like bonds? 2. What are callable and bullet structures? 3. What are the key benefits of government securities? 4. What are the most popular types of Treasuries? 5. Why are Agencies considered second in quality only to the US government securities? 6. What is the mechanism of mortgages? 7. Why do companies issue corporates? 8. What is credit quality? 9. What are the main types of municipals? 10. Why isn’t credit risk a concern with CDs? 11. How can you construct an optimum investment portfolio? 12. What are the best strategies for bond investors?

Exercise 2*. Find terms in the text that match definitions given below and make sentences of your own with each term.

1. the issuer can redeem the bond before maturity due to specific conditions

2. certificate that indicates a specific deposit has been given to the bank; the bank pays interest on the funds until the maturity date

3. the likelihood of default rated from AAA and below

4. credit quality of AA or AAA

5. an obligation with a maturity of more than one year from when it was issued

6. the date that a contract expires

7. a bond offered by state and local government

8. a company’s purchase of its outstanding stock

9. a negotiable debt obligation issued by the U.S. Treasury with maturities of 13, 26, and 52 weeks; non interest bearing but issued on a discount basis instead

10. coupon securities issued by the U.S. Treasury with semi-annual interest and maturities of 10 to 30 years

11. securities issued by the U.S. Treasury bearing interest and with maturities of 2 to 10 years

12. annual percentage rate of return, determined by dividing income by principal; or the effective rate of interest paid on a note or bond

13. the normal tendency of yields to rise with the increasing maturity of the security

Exercise 3. Read the following text describing different types of investors. Identify which type is closest to your personality and devise an investment strategy for yourself, and for the following individuals: 1. A semi-retired professor; 2. A 40-something engineer with two teenage children; 3. A housewife in her early thirties married to a rich businessman; 4. A computer genius in his mid twenties.

The Successful Investment Journey

Know Yourself

Nobody knows you and your situation better than you do. Therefore, you may be the most qualified person to do your own investing – all you need is a bit of help. Identify the personality traits that can assist you or prevent you from investing successfully and manage them accordingly.

A very useful behavioral model that helps investors to understand themselves was developed by Bailard, Biehl & Kaiser.

The model classifies investors according to two personality characteristics: method of action (careful or impetuous) and level of confidence (confident or anxious). Based on these personality traits, the BB&K model divides investors into five groups:

Individualist – careful and confident, often takes a «do-it-yourself» approach

Adventurer – volatile, entrepreneurial and strong willed

Celebrity – follower of the latest investment fads

Guardian – highly risk averse, wealth preserver

Straight Arrow – shares the characteristics of all of the above equally

Not surprisingly, the best investment results tend to be realized by an individualist, or someone who exhibits analytical behavior and confidence and has a good eye for value. However, if you determine that your personality traits resemble those of an adventurer, you can still achieve investment success if you adjust your strategy accordingly. In other words, regardless of which group you fit into, you should manage your core assets in a systematic and disciplined way.

Source: Investopedia, March 10, 2006, by Derek Polcyn, CFA

Exercise 4*. Find antonyms for the following terms and make sentences of your own with each pair.

Example: upstream – downstream

upside —…….

budget deficit —……….

developed markets —…….

loss-making —………..

in the red —……….

upgrade —……..

public sector —……..

individual investors —………

primary market —………

outperform —……..

Exercise 5*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

Why Stock Investors Should Purchase Bonds

No doubt……. outperformed……. for two years in a row. While past…….. cannot guarantee future results, recent market…… provides compelling enough evidence for most investors to consider an overall……. that solidly integrates these two important…….. classes.

Stocks still present…….. with the potential for excellent long-term……. But simply owning stocks – and leaving excess cash in a……. fund – may not be the optimal way to safeguard your…….. assets. In fact, SalomonSmithBarney currently recommends investors to include bonds, stocks and……. in their overall portfolio. Of course, only your specific goals and risk……… can dictate what…….. is right for you, but bear in mind that a balanced portfolio of both bonds and stocks would have outperformed an…….. portfolio over the past two years, and helped to dampen some of the volatility that characterized the……..

Undoubtedly, the primary reason you have purchased stocks has been to achieve……… in your investment portfolio. But did you know that bonds can help you achieve a number of complementary……..? The three most important are: (1) to preserve…….; (2) to supplement current…….; and (3) to enhance total…….. As the old…….. adage proclaims: Make your money in stocks, but keep your money in bonds.

The first two objectives are particularly relevant for investors whose portfolios are heavily…… in equity securities. Regarding capital preservation, the recent equity market volatility has confirmed once again that stocks are long-term investments and are not necessarily the most appropriate way to meet either short-term or more…… financial needs that are more predictably provided by…….. securities.

More evident, perhaps, is the stock investor’s diminished ability to generate income from equity…….. Until recently, stocks issued by many companies paid relatively high…….. Many investors even depend on stock dividends to……. their current income.

However, due to widespread government……… and growing investor demands for stock price………., high dividend-paying equities have become scarce as many companies have been forced to become more……… This has diverted…….instead to other corporate activities such as the purchase of new equipment, acquisitions or stock……..

Replace Disappearing Dividends

First the bad news: vanishing stock dividends are unlikely to reverse……. anytime into the……. future. The……. is further entrenched by large financial…….. now given to senior corporate managers and board members, commonly tied to stock price performance.

The good news, however, is that by complementing your equity holdings with a……… bond portfolio, you can establish a more predictable income……. Best of all, fixed-income securities afford you an enormous amount of……… to receive………. payments on a monthly, quarterly or semi-annual basis.

Source: www.citibank.com

Terms:

Wall Street, trend, equity-only, interest, course, cash, income, weighted, asset, allocation, deregulation, bonds, conservative, supplement, holdings, dividends, stocks, return, appreciation, stream, foreseeable, performance, fixed-income, volatility, diversified, portfolio strategy, individual investors, money market, financial, parameters, equity market, growth, objectives, capital, buybacks, incentives, flexibility, competitive, rewards, funds

Exercise 6. Translate into English.

Крупнейшие сделки 2003 года

2003 г. стал для российских финансовых рынков годом новых рекордов. В этом году состоялась крупнейшая международная сделка слияния/поглощения и крупнейшая эмиссия корпоративных облигаций. Агентство Moody’s впервые присвоило России инвестиционный рейтинг. Не обошлось и без разочарований, поскольку не состоялись по крайней мере две широко обсуждавшиеся сделки. В наступившем году возможен бурный рост в относительно слаборазвитых секторах, к которым относятся выпуск внутренних облигаций и размещение акций российских компаний на открытом рынке.

Рынок акций и облигаций

В 2003 г. было отмечено существенное увеличение выпуска корпоративных облигаций. Общая сумма заемных средств, привлеченных российскими компаниями через выпуск еврооблигаций, составила в 2003 г. $ 7,6 млрд по сравнению с $ 4 млрд в 2002 г. Выпуск внутренних рублевых облигаций также увеличился до $ 2,7 млрд по сравнению с $ 1,8 млрд в 2002 г.

В 2003 г. 13 российских компаний провели размещение 17 выпусков облигаций на международных рынках. В качестве главного заемщика выступил «Газпром», привлекший в феврале $ 1,75 млрд (крупнейший в истории России выпуск корпоративных облигаций), а осенью – 1 млрд евро. Помимо этого, Газпромбанк, дочернее предприятие «Газпрома», привлек в прошлом году $ 750 млн. Еще одним активным заемщиком стала компания МТС, разместившая три выпуска облигаций на общую сумму $ 1,1 млрд.

В прошедшем году было отмечено усиление активности российских банков, которые привлекли на международных рынках облигаций $ 2,25 млрд. Кроме Газпромбанка облигации размещали Сбербанк России, Внешторгбанк, банк «Зенит» и МДМ-Банк. Благодаря увеличению объема выпуска еврооблигаций банками наблюдается приток денежных средств в российский финансовый сектор и рост ресурсов для внутреннего кредитования.

В начале октября агентство Moody’s подняло суверенный рейтинг России до инвестиционного уровня. Это означает увеличение финансирования российских компаний и государственных организаций за счет выпуска еврооблигаций. Тем не менее остальные рейтинговые агентства сохраняют рейтинг России на уровне ниже инвестиционного (в частности, рейтинг Standard & Poor’s находится на уровне BB+).

В прошедшем году выпуск рублевых облигаций по-прежнему оставался существенным источником финансирования средних по размеру российских компаний, работающих в области металлургии, телекоммуникаций, ТНП и в других секторах. Этап стремительного увеличения выпусков еврооблигаций российскими компаниями в основном завершен, и в текущем году можно рассчитывать лишь на медленный рост, в то время как на рынке рублевых облигаций сохраняются возможности для более высоких темпов роста. По нашим данным, в прошлом году ряд крупных выпусков был отложен, поскольку эмитенты ожидали снижения ставки налога на выпуск ценных бумаг, которое вступает в силу в текущем году. После снижения данного налога можно будет ожидать некоторой активизации, особенно по бумагам со сроком погашения не более одного года. Кроме того, в текущем году существует вероятность удвоения максимального объема займов.

Не исключено, что федеральные и региональные органы власти будут более активно проводить заимствования на внутреннем и международном рынке облигаций. Пока еще неясно, состоится ли выход правительства РФ на рынок еврооблигаций. Неопределенность положения вызвана отсутствием уверенности не в наличии спроса, а в необходимости привлечения заемных средств.

Что касается операций на рынке акций, то объемы первичных и вторичных эмиссий были ограниченными. Крупнейшие сделки были связаны с вторичными размещениями, в ходе которых акционеры ведущих российских компаний продавали свои доли участия финансовым инвесторам.

Источник: журнал «Экономика России: ХХI век» № 15 (отрывок);

авторы: Владимир Меркушев, менеджер компании Ernst&Young,

Екатерина Решетникова, старший консультант компании Ernst&Young

Lesson 31
How IPOs are Organized

Read and translate the text and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

IPO Procedure

Initial Public Offerings generally involve one or more investment banks as «underwriters». The issuer enters a contract with the underwriters to sell its shares to the public. The underwriters then approach investors with offers to sell these shares.

A large IPO is usually underwritten by a «syndicate» of investment banks led by one or two major investment banks (lead manager). The underwriters keep a commission based on a percentage of the value of the shares they sell. Multinational IPOs may have as many as three syndicates to deal with differing legal requirements in the home country, the U.S. and other countries. Because of the wide array of legal requirements, IPOs typically involve one or more law firms.

Legal Requirements in the United States

The U.S. has the strictest legal regime in the world governing IPOs. Moreover, federal securities law applies not only to IPOs within the U.S., but to any IPO in the world that targets or is likely to target a large number of U.S. investors.

The IPO process is governed by the Securities Act of 1933 and the regulations of SEC; each stock exchange has separate rules that listing companies must follow. Smaller IPOs may also be significantly affected by state blue sky laws; these laws are usually pre-empted by federal law when the stock is to be listed on a major exchange or NASDAQ, but apply fully to certain medium-scale offerings on a local level.

Before the IPO begins in earnest, the issuer must draft a prospectus. The prospectus is a detailed overview of the company’s finances, history, operations, products, risk factors, industry environment, etc. The SEC actively polices the content of each IPO prospectus, and law firms are usually involved in the drafting process.

Under the Securities Act, until an IPO is registered with the SEC, no public offering of any kind may be made by the issuer or its underwriters. Any offering during this «quiet period» is called «gun jumping». After filing, the issuer and underwriters may advertise the IPO through a simple «tombstone» advertisement, listing the name of the company, the amount of stock being offered, the names of the underwriters, and other basic information. Private placement discussions and limited press releases are also permitted. Any written offers to sell stock must be accompanied by a copy of the prospectus as submitted to the SEC, which is usually stamped with a warning of its non-final status in red letters and therefore called a «red herring».

Once the SEC approves the prospectus, the price of the shares is finalized and the IPO enters a «free riding» period in which shares may be offered for sale in a number of ways, such as telephone calls, «road shows» and institutional visits.

The issuer is liable for any misstatement or omission in the prospectus; its directors and underwriters may also be liable if they fail to undertake a «reasonable investigation». Underwriters may defend against liability by completing a due diligence investigation of the issuer, usually involving outside lawyers and accountants.

Legal Requirements in the European Union

The EU does not have a central regulatory mechanism for IPOs, but has made several steps toward unifying European laws relating to IPOs, most notably the Prospectus Directive of 2003. In Europe, underwriters generally face joint and several liability for the underwriting of all the offered securities. This differs from the U.S. rule, where each underwriter is separately liable for their allotted portion of the offering.

Pricing

Historically, IPOs both globally and in the U.S. have been underpriced. The effect of underpricing an IPO is to generate additional interest in the securities. This leads to massive gains for investors who enter the IPO early. However, underpricing an IPO results in «money left on the table». Investment banks take many factors into consideration when pricing an IPO, and attempt to reach an offering price that is low enough to stimulate interest in the stock, but high enough to raise an adequate amount of capital for the company.

Investment Banks

Investment banks assist public and private corporations in raising funds in the capital markets, as well as in providing strategic advisory services for M&As and other types of financial transactions. They also act as intermediaries in trading for clients. Investment banks differ from commercial banks, which take deposits and make commercial and retail loans. In recent years, however, the difference between them has blurred, especially as commercial banks are now offering more investment banking services. In the U.S., the Glass-Steagall Act, created in the wake of the Stock Market Crash of 1929, prohibited banks from simultaneously accepting deposits and underwriting securities; it was repealed by the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act in 1998. Investment banks may also differ from brokerages, which in general assist in the purchase and sale of stocks, bonds, and mutual funds.

Definitions

There appears to be considerable confusion today about what does and does not constitute an «investment bank» and «investment banker». In the strictest definition, investment banking is the raising of funds, both in debt and equity, and the name of the division handling this in an investment bank is often called the «Investment Banking Division» (IBD). However, only a few small boutique firms solely provide this, with almost all investment banks heavily involved in providing additional financial services for clients such as the trading of fixed income, foreign exchange, commodity and equity securities. It is therefore acceptable to refer to both the «Investment Banking Division» and other ‘front office’ divisions such as «Fixed Income» as «investment banking».

More commonly used today to characterize what was traditionally termed «investment banking» is «sell side». This is trading securities for cash or securities (i.e., facilitating transactions, market making), or promoting securities (i.e. underwriting, research, etc.). The «buy side» constitutes the pension funds, mutual funds, hedge funds, and the investing public who consume the products and services of the sell side in order to maximize their return.

Role of Modern Investment Banks

The original purpose of an investment bank was to raise capital and advise on M&As and other corporate financial strategies. As banking firms have diversified, investment banks have come to fill a variety of roles:

– Underwriting and distributing new security issues

– Offering brokerage services to public & institutional investors

– Providing financial advice to corporate clients, e.g. on securities issues and M&As

– Providing financial security research to investors and corporate customers

– Market making in particular securities.

Investment banks have also moved into forex markets, private banking, asset management and bridge financing.

A key role of investment banks is to help companies raise capital in the capital markets by arranging the issuance of new securities. There are two ways to do this: through a public offering or through a private placement.

The Main Activities and Units

Large, global investment banks typically have several business units, including Investment Banking, concerned with advising public and private corporations; Research, concerned with producing reports on valuations of financial products; and Sales and Trading, concerned with buying and selling products.

An investment bank is split into the so-called Front Office, Middle Office and Back Office, with Front Office widely deemed as having the highest-caliber employees in terms of intellectual and/or interpersonal capital, and Back Office the least

Front Office.

Investment Banking is the traditional aspect of investment banks which involves helping customers raise funds in the Capital Markets and advising on M&As and Corporate Finance. Investment bankers prepare idea pitches that they bring to meetings with their clients, with the expectation that their effort will be rewarded with a mandate when the client is ready to undertake a transaction.

Financial Markets is split into four key divisions: Sales, Trading, Research and Structuring.

– Sales and Trading is often the most profitable area of an investment bank, responsible for the majority of revenue of most investment banks. Sales is the term for the investment banks sales force, whose primary job is to call on institutional and high-net-worth investors to suggest trading ideas (on caveat emptor basis) and take orders. Sales desks then communicate their clients’ orders to the appropriate trading desks, which can price and execute trades, or structure new products.

– Research is the division which reviews companies and writes reports about their prospects, often with «buy» or «sell» ratings. While the research division generates no revenue, its resources are used to assist traders in trading, the sales force in suggesting ideas to customers, and investment bankers by covering their clients. In recent years the relationship between investment banking and research has become highly regulated, reducing its importance to the investment bank.

– Structuring has been a recent division as Derivatives have come into play, with highly technical employees working on creating complex structured products, which typically offer greater margins and returns than underlying securities.

Middle Office.

Risk Management involves analyzing the risk that traders are taking onto the balance sheet in conducting their daily trades, and setting limits on the amount of capital that they are able to trade in order to prevent ‘bad’ trades having a detrimental effect to a desk overall.

Back Office.

Operations involve data-checking trades that have been conducted, ensuring that they are not erroneous, and transacting the required transfers.

Technology – Every major investment bank has considerable amounts of in-house software, created by the Technology team, who are also responsible for IT support.

Recent Evolution of the Business

Investment Banking is one of the most global industries, and is hence continuously challenged to respond to new developments and innovation in the global financial markets. Throughout Investment Banking history, many have theorized that all investment banking products and services would be commoditized. However, new products with higher margins are constantly invented by bankers in hopes of winning over clients and developing trading know-how in new markets. Since these cannot be patented or copyrighted, they are very often copied quickly by competing banks, pushing down trading margins. For example, trading bonds and equities for customers is now a commodity business, but structuring and trading derivatives is highly profitable. Each contract has to be uniquely structured to match the client’s need, may involve complex pay-off and risk profiles, and is not listed on any market.

Possible Conflicts of Interest

Potential conflicts of interest may arise between different parts of a bank, creating the potential for financial movements that could be deemed as market manipulation. Authorities that regulate investment banking (the FSA in the United Kingdom and the SEC in the U.S.) require that banks impose a Chinese Wall which prohibits communication between Investment Banking and Research and Equities.

Some of the conflicts of interest involved in investment banking are:

Historically, equity research firms were founded and owned by investment banks. One common practice is for equity analysts to initiate coverage on a company in order to develop relationships that lead to highly profitable investment banking business. In the 1990s, many researchers allegedly traded positive stock ratings directly for investment banking business. Companies would also threaten to divert investment banking business to competitors unless their stock was rated favorably. Increased pressure from regulators and a series of lawsuits and prosecutions curbed this business to a large extent following the 2001 stock market tumble.

Many investment banks also own retail brokerages. Also during the 1990s, some retail brokerages sold consumers securities that did not meet their stated risk profile. This behavior may have led to investment banking business or even sales of surplus shares during a public offering to keep public perception of the stock favorable.

Since investment banks engage heavily in trading for their own account, there is always the temptation or possibility that they might engage in front running.

Source: Wikepidia

Essential Vocabulary

1. underwriting (UW) n – андеррайтинг (покупка ценных бумаг у эмитента для перепродажи или собственных инвестиций); страхование; гарантирование размещения займа

underwriter n – андеррайтер, гарант

underwrite v – гарантировать, страховать

2. syndicate n – синдикат (консорциум)

syndicate v – синдицировать, образовывать синдикат

3. lead manager – лид-менеджер (ведущий менеджер: банк, являющийся главным организатором и гарантом займа)

4. blue sky law – «законы голубого неба» (законы ряда штатов, предназначенные для защиты от мошенничества при эмиссии и торговле ценными бумагами)

5. pre-emption n – покупка прежде других; преимущественное право на покупку

pre-empt v – покупать раньше других; приобретать преимущественное право; осуществлять преимущественное право

pre-emptive a – преимущественное право

6. prospectus n – проспект эмиссии

7. quiet period – «тихий» период (период до и некоторое время после регистрации эмиссии, когда запрещено заниматься ее рекламой)

8. gun jumping – нарываться (торговля ценными бумагами на основе еще не обнародованной информации; незаконное принятие брокером приказов на покупку новых, еще не зарегистрированных ценных бумаг)

9. tombstone n – «надгробный памятник» (краткое объявление в финансовой прессе о займе, выпуске новых акций, поглощении и т. п.)

10. red herring – предварительный вариант проспекта эмиссии до регистрации в Комиссии по ценным бумагам и биржам США

11. road show – презентация компании или эмиссии ценных бумаг, которая устраивается компанией и ее инвестиционными советниками в основных финансовых центрах

12. misstatement n – неверное, ложное утверждение

13. omission n – упущение

omit v – упускать, пропускать

14. joint and several liability – солидарная и индивидуальная ответственность

15. intermediary n – посредник

16. repeal v – аннулирование, отмена

17. boutique firm – маленькая специализированная брокерская фирма или инвестиционный банк с ограниченным кругом операций, клиентов и услуг

18. sell side – организации, занимающиеся продажей ценных бумаг

19. buy side – организации, занимающиеся приобретением ценных бумаг

20. private banking – частные банковские услуги

21. asset management – управление активами

22. bridge financing – промежуточное финансирование

23. front office – «франт»-офис, передний офис

24. middle office – средний офис

25. back office – «бэк»-офис, вспомогательный офис

26. pitch n – зд. реклама

pitch v – излагать, рекламировать

27. corporate finance – корпоративные финансы

28. caveat emptor – лат. «пусть покупатель остерегается», «качество на риске покупателя»

29.trading desk – торговый стол

30. buy – «покупать» (инвестиционная рекомендация)

31. sell – «продавать» (инвестиционная рекомендация)

32. underlying security – базовая ценная бумага

33. commoditize v – превращать в обычные товары

34. market manipulation – манипулирование рынком

35. Financial Services Authority (FSA) – Агентство по финансовым услугам

36. Chinese Wall – «китайская стена» (жесткое разделение функций инвестиционного банка в сфере корпоративных финансов и торговли ценными бумагами)

37. equity research – анализ акций

38. front running – «опережающий бег» (незаконная практика покупки брокером ценной бумаги для себя, а затем выполнение крупного приказа клиента о покупке бумаги; биржевая практика, при которой дилер, располагающий информацией о предстоящей крупной операции, заранее заключает опционную сделку на данные бумаги для получения прибыли от изменения цен)

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. How are IPOs usually organized? 2. What are the legal requirements to IPOs in the US? 3. What aspects should be taken into account in the process of pricing of an IPO? 4. What is the traditional role of investment banks? 5. What are the new functions that investment banks perform? 6. What are the main units of investment banks? 7. What are the potential conflicts of interest that might arise between different parts of an investment bank?

Exercise 2*. Find terms in the text that match definitions given below and make sentences of your own with each term.

1. interim financing to solidify a position

2. let the buyer beware

3. a communication barrier between members or departments of a financial institution intended to prevent the transfer of price-sensitive information

4. a situation where a financial institution is acting for the parties on both sides of a transaction, or where the institution itself has a financial interest in the outcome of the transaction

5. a Federal law that prohibits commercial banks from securities underwriting

6. someone who studies companies and financial securities and makes recommendations to buy and sell shares and other securities

7. a liability that falls at the same time on each one of two or more parties, and on all together

8. a financial institution, which coordinates a syndicated loan or the underwriting of securities

9. a dealer who regularly quotes both bid and ask prices and is ready to make a two-sided market for any financial instrument

10. when investors are prepared to purchase more shares at the offered price than are available

11. a group of banks acting together temporarily to loan money in a syndicated credit or to underwrite a new issue of bonds

12. analyzing and structuring a proposed loan

Exercise 3*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

The PBN Company’s Guide to Russia’s IPO Pioneers

Who would have thought only two years ago that we would see so many Russian companies featured so prominently in the global……. markets? Who would have thought that Sistema and EvrazHolding would become…….. names in international investment circles?

A look at the figures shows just how dramatically Russian equity……. have grown in the last two years – a period in which investors have been inundated with…….. coming out of Russia. Market………were clearly right. With developed equity markets generally in decline, investors became willing to look further afield for attractive…….. With the Russian economy growing rapidly, politics stabilizing, and more companies embracing higher standards of……… and corporate………., Russia seemed like a good bet. Looking at the returns that the majority of the Russia and Eastern Europe-dedicated…….. have boasted in the past two years, it becomes even clearer just why investor demand for new Russian issues has been so strong, and why in turn so many companies from the region have decided to go……..

While raising capital was certainly one of the factors driving Russian IPOs, in many cases the need to raise……. finance was secondary. The status and…….. which comes with a public….. influenced some companies. And there is also the idea that…….. foreign investors gives Russian companies a degree of political protection at home.

A key driver for rising investor demand has been a notable desire on the part of investors to diversify their Russia……… away from politically risky resource stocks and into more dynamic, rapidly growing…….. companies. It was this voracious appetite for new, liquid stocks offering……… to Russian growth which made the Sistema IPO such a resounding success, and which paved the way for numerous other consumer-oriented companies – from automotive to internet to food & beverage – to make their capital markets debuts in 2004—2005.

Many of the consumer companies which followed Sistema also found strong investor……… although not all achieved the high……… initially projected. A number of investors considered some of the Russian IPOs to be……… too aggressively.

While……… and exposure to consumer growth describe much of the recent investor interest in Russian equities, it has not all been about the consumer story. Lest we forget, resource companies still have the heaviest…….. in the indexes, and many domestic and foreign portfolio investors are still willing to invest in the enticing if less predictable «strategic sectors». Novatek’s recent London IPO at the end of 2005, which was 12 times……… bears witness to this.

VimpelCom’s IPO profile

VimpelCom’s listing on the…… in November 1996 was Russia’s first ever IPO in any form. The company…….. at the top of the announced price……, which was increased in response to strong demand from $15.75—$18.75 to $19.50—$20.50 the day before the IPO. The stock was one of the most actively…….. and its price rose by 40% on the first day……… at $20.50, the VimpelCom ADSs……. at $29. By the end of 1996 the stock was up 50% from its……. price. The structure of the offer comprised 3.9 million ADSs offered to investors in the U.S. and Canada, while 1.5 million ADSs were offered…….. «Everyone knows that the cellular business is the most dynamic, so the combination of Russia and telecommunications just hypnotized investors,» said Valery Antonov, a telecommunications…….. with Creditanstalt Grant.

The success of VimpelCom’s IPO depended on the results of Russian president Boris Yeltsin’s cardiac surgery, which was carried out during the……… «Nobody would buy Russian………. in a situation of complete uncertainty of the country’s further political line,» said VimpelCom’s head of IR Valery Goldin.

«Russia’s leading cellular telephone company, Vimpel-Communications A.O., is set for a roughly $90 million IPO as the first Russian company to be listed on the………. VimpelCom, as the company is known, is also a case study of……. political connections into cash in the Wild West business atmosphere of today’s Russia.»

Wimm-Bill-Dann IPO profile

WBD’s IPO was…….. Best European Equity Deal of 2002 by EuroWeek and Institutional Investor magazines. Investors striving to gain exposure to the first ever offering of a Russian consumer goods company were not frightened by the information……. in the IPO……… about the criminal past of the company’s biggest shareholder, Gavriil Yushvaev, and about the…….. of other shareholders and directors with Trinity Holding, which Russian media have linked to organized crime. The issue, which was placed in the middle of the…….. price range, was five times oversubscribed. The……. price rose 15.8% on the first day of trading in light of the news that Danone SA bought 4% of WBD through the IPO. Among other investors who bought in WBD were large……… investment funds and investment banks. The substantial interest from U.S. investors in WBD’s IPO was partly due to the fact that Templeton Strategic Emerging Markets Fund…….. a 1.48%…… in the company earlier in 2002.

«We are the first Russian consumer……. company to list on the NYSE. In addition to raising capital to help fund our development, this IPO will enhance our transparency and demonstrate our……. to becoming an international……,» said David Iakobashvili…… of the Board.

Source: PBN Company, Russia’s IPO Pioneers (excerpts), www.pbnсo.com

Terms:

Big Board, stock, prospectus, exposure, governance, Chairman, equity, international, acquired, attracting, capital, announced, player, household, overseas, awarded, involvement, issues, IPOs, conditions, returns, transparency, funds, public, profile, listing, holdings, floated, consumer, demand, goods, commitment, multiples, priced, weighting, oversubscribed, range, traded, opening, closed, offer, analyst, securities, leveraging, disclosed, stake, NYSE, road-show

Exercise 4. You work in the investor relations department of Mechel, and you are to write a brief press-release about Mechel’s IPO using information given below.

Mechel: IPO profile

Mechel’s IPO made it the first Russian company in more than two years to list shares in the U.S. as well as Russia’s first metals firm to list on the NYSE. The offering came amid growing world steel prices, which helped Mechel to place the stock at the top of the expected price range and to raise $291 million. About 20% of the offered ADRs represented existing shares and 80% – new shares. A month later, the lead underwriter of the offering, UBS Limited, exercised its option for an additional 1.5% stake. According to UBS, 90% of the offering was taken by foreign investment funds, mainly from the United States. Mechel planned to use the proceeds to take part in an auction for a 17.8% stake in MMK but later decided not to bid, choosing instead to sell its own stake in MMK to the plant’s current management. It will invest the proceeds into developing its coal capacity as well as modernization of its steel facilities.

Key Data

Date of IPO: October 29, 2004

Stock exchange: NYSE

Underwriters

Lead managers: UBS Limited

Co-managers: JP Morgan, Troika Dialog, Morgan Stanley

Form of offer: ADS (each ADS represents 3 common shares)

Number of securities offered: 13.87 million

By the company: 11.1 million

By existing holders: 2.77 million

Number of securities subject to the over-allotment option: 2.08 million

Percentage of the share capital offered: 11.5%

Price range: $19—$21

Offer price: $21

Total capital raised: $335 million

Use of proceeds: Capital expenditures, including equipment purchases and modernization of facilities; acquisition of additional operations and subsoil licenses.

«There is a big, wide investor base that can’t access the steel sector. These shares are a good way to get access to an under-represented sector and diversify a Russia portfolio» – Anton Khmelnitsky, Brunswick Asset Management.

Mechel: Company profile

Mechel is one of Russia’s leading mining and metals companies. It produces coking coal in Russia, with a 12% market share in 2004. It is Russia’s largest exporter of coking coal concentrate. It is the largest and most comprehensive producer of specialty steels and alloys in Russia, producing 39% of total Russian specialty steel output. In the first quarter of 2005, almost 90% of Mechel’s net income came from mining. The major shareholders of the company are its founders Igor Zyuzin, Chairman of the Board, and Vladimir Iorich, CEO. J.P. Morgan Investment holds 1.62% of the company.

Source: Russia IPO’s Pioneers, www.pbnco.com

Exercise 5. Translate into English.

ОАО «НОВАТЭК»

Неослабевающий спрос на акции компании ОАО «НОВАТЕК» показал, что иностранные инвесторы не так сильно обеспокоены упущениями российского правительства в секторе природных ресурсов, как утверждали западные СМИ после «дела ЮКОСа».

Владельцы «НОВАТЭКа» продали 17,3% обыкновенных акций компании на Лондонской фондовой бирже по цене $ 16,75 за каждую GDR – максимальной цене в рамках ожидаемого диапазона. В первый день размещения на момент закрытия торгов акции «НОВАТЭКа» стоили $ 19, что на 13% выше цены предложения. Огромный спрос позволил UBS AG и Morgan Stanley, выступившим международными консультантами размещения, реализовать свой опцион на продажу дополнительного 1,7% акций, что в итоге увеличило объем привлеченных средств в рамках IPO до $ 966 млн, а количество размещенных акций – до 19%. Подписка более чем в 12 раз превысила первоначально запланированную сумму предложения, а стоимость компании в результате составила почти $ 5,5 млрд.

IPO ОАО «НОВАТЭК» является на данный момент вторым по величине IPO российской компании после IPO АФК «Система» в объеме $ 1,56 млрд, проведенного в феврале этого года. Несмотря на некоторые опасения инвесторов, вызванные отношением компании с ОАО «Газпром», IPO «НОВАТЭКа» прошло успешно. Это объясняется главным образом привлекательностью компании для широкого круга инвесторов, ищущих выход на самый крупный в мире рынок газа. Согласно проспекту IPO ОАО «НОВАТЭК», привлеченный капитал будет использоваться для погашения долга, возникшего в процессе консолидации компании в конце 2004 г.

Ключевые данные

Дата IPO – 21 июля 2005 г.

Фондовая биржа – LSE

Андеррайтеры

Лид-менеджеры – Morgan Stanley, UBS AG, CSFB

Соменеджеры – «Тройка Диалог», Alfa Capital Markets, Внешэкономбанк

Форма предложения акций – GDR (каждая представляет 0,01 акции)

Количество размещенных акций – 52,44 млн

Компанией – 0

Существующими акционерами – 52,44 млн

Количество акций, включенных в опцион на сверхраспределенную долю, – 5,25 млн

Доля размещенных акций в уставном капитале – 19%

Заявленный ценовой коридор – $ 14,75—16,75

Цена размещения – 16,75 долл. США

Суммарный привлеченный капитал – $ 966 млн

Цели привлечения средств – реструктуризация долга

«Спрос на эту сделку с точки зрения объема и качества был одним из лучших за последние два года», – cказал Хенрик Гобель, глава европейского фондового синдиката Morgan Stanley.

Bloomberg, 21 июля 2005 г.

Источник: Russia IPO’s Pioneers, www.pbnco.com

Lesson 32
Commodity Trading

Read and translate the text and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

The 10 Commandments of Successful Commodity Trading

I’ve been trading for myself and for others going on 20 years. In all my years trading and watching others trade, studying the markets and listening to all the different «gurus of the moment», I have come to find a few simple truths. In no way am I suggesting that these are all the truths or that there is any monopoly on truth, especially in trading. Nevertheless, if one is in this game long enough one starts to notice things. One of those things is that a lot of systems and approaches to commodity trading work a lot of the time, and another is, from time to time, some work exceedingly well.

So why do so many people lose money trading in the markets while others consistently make hundreds of thousands – even millions of dollars each year? It is my contention that for most of us it boils down to a few simple sins. Sins that a lot of people trading in the commodity market tend to repeat over and over again. Like the old man in Las Vegas still hitting on seventeen at the blackjack table, some people never learn. It can be a basic flaw in the system or trading approach or no approach at all. But most of the time, in my view, it is in the trader himself – the one pulling the trigger.

Here, accordingly, is my take on the ten deadliest sins:

I.Thou shalt not risk more money than thou can afford to lose. Also known as «if you can’t afford to lose, you can’t afford to win.»

Let’s face it – this ain’t bean ball. You can lose money! Stop right here, throw away this handbook, forget about trading futures, do something else with the rest of your life if losing whatever money you might trade with would take food off your table, keep your kids from going to college or change your lifestyle. Repeat, there is no system or approach available that doesn’t sustain losses sometimes. The trick is containing those losses.

II.Thou shalt not trade futures without the placing of stops.

Also known as «you’ve got to know when to hold up, know when to fold up.» Show me a futures trader who doesn’t use stop loss orders and I’ll show you someone who loses a lot of money. Before initiating any trade if you haven’t already figured out at what point you would be wrong and would want to cut your losses or, at the very least, reevaluate your position from the sidelines, then you shouldn’t be putting on the trade.^[3] You should also have a profit or price objective that is at least twice the proposed risk, and you should never take a profit just for the sake of taking a profit.

Options, of course, are different because of the inherent liquidity problems in some markets and because frequently the reason an option is purchased in the first place is to «ride the wave», or position trade, using the fixed risk of the option premium itself.

III.Thou shalt not let large profits turn into losses. Also known as «stupid».

The most common scenario is: You’ve had a favorable move in the market, maybe you are up a few thousand dollars per contract. Hopefully, you followed the second commandment and placed an open stop loss order when you initiated the trade. But now you are afraid to raise your stop and lock in at least some profit because you don’t want to get «whipsawed» and stopped out. Then the market reverses. So you let the market take back some of your profits, hoping it will turn around again, until all of a sudden your once profitable trade is now under water and in real danger of being stopped out at a loss! What went wrong? The answer is: You didn’t raise your stop. Most pros use a trailing stop system, (a pattern of raising their stop to lock-in profits) based on either chart points or a pure money management approach. You should too.^[4]

IV.Thou shalt not let thy emotions rule. Also known as «a fool and his money are soon parted».

This is probably the hardest commandment to keep. Yet, I have never seen a successful trader over the long haul who didn’t follow it. Most people want to be winners. Most people want to make the big score and have the accompanying bragging rights. We all tend to get greedy, speculators usually more so. But trading is a business. You must be cool, calm, and always ready for the next opportunity. You can’t have high highs or low lows because you’ll make too many mistakes, and mistakes mean losses. If you start winning and get «too high», the tendency is to over-trade. By that, I mean starting to make marginal trades just for the sake of making trades, instead of waiting patiently for the right opportunity. If you get too low (this is usually after some losses), you are liable to skip the trades you should be making, or you might try to «cherry-pick» a system or an advisor’s recommendations for fear of more losses, inevitably making the wrong choices. To win this game you must remain clear-headed.

V. Thou shalt not place all thy eggs in one basket. Also known as «live to trade again.»

Ask any pro trader how much of their total account they risk on any one trade and the answer undoubtedly that will come back will be not more than ten percent. Why? Because the successful trader knows that losses are part of the game, and that frequently a few big profitable trades during the year more than make up for all the little losses, and they want to be around when the next opportunity arises.

VI. Thou shalt not buy deep out-of-the-money options. Also known as «you get nothing for nothing».

This is also known as the broker’s best friend.

Now brokerages are in business to make money, ours as well as everyone else’s. Everyone accepts that. And commissions are the energy source that makes it all possible. Most brokers do get some percentage of the commissions as their pay. Since most options are traded on a round-turn basis, it stands to reason that the more options the customer buys, the more money the broker makes. Therefore, the cheaper the option premium the more options the customer can buy. But not all options are created equal. For instance, let’s say gold is trading at $400 an ounce and you think gold will rally. There are usually 100 oz. «call» options offered in strike prices of $400, $410, $420, $430 and so on for a specific amount of time (there are also lower strike prices offered). Keep in mind that at expiration gold must be above your strike price to have any value. It follows then, that at expiration if gold is trading at $420 the $400 «call» option is worth $2,000 (100 ozs. X $20); but the $430 «call» is worth zero. That is why the further away from the market the strike price, the cheaper it costs to purchase. The unscrupulous option brokers will sometimes convince their clients to buy «deep out-of-the-money» options – options that are five, ten, sometimes fifteen strikes away from the underlying market. They are usually very cheap and the broker can buy a lot of them for a small amount of money and therefore rack up a large commission for him or herself. The problem is they have almost no chance of making any money for the client because the market will have to make a huge move in a relatively short period of time to pay off. And although that does happen in commodities, the odds are against it.

It is my experience that options have the greatest appreciation from roughly two to three strikes out-of-the-money to two to three strikes «in-the-money». At our firm, we discourage brokers from recommending buying options much further out than that except in special situations.

VII. Thou shalt not fight the tape. Also known as «the trend is your friend».

The mistake speculators sometimes make is trying to buy or be long while markets are still in a basic downtrend, or selling short when they are in an up trend. Most professional traders try to identify the major trend and construct their trades in that direction. They know that when you trade «with the trend» usually your chances of winning improve. Many times the trend will bail you out of an initially less than great entry point. There are many ways to analyze trends, but most involve some kind of price action like moving averages using daily or weekly charts, or somewhat more sophisticated technical indicators like stochastics or the ADX line.

VIII. Thou shalt not stay in losing trades too long. Also known as «the best trades are usually right, right away».

Let’s face it – you can’t turn a sow’s ear into a silk purse. The best trades are usually right immediately. I know a lot of commodity traders who say, stop or not, if the trade is not profitable within two or three days they’re out, cutting their losses even shorter. They don’t need to hang around just waiting to get stopped out. Experience tells them they will get stopped out. Remember, people have been trading commodities for a hundred and fifty years, the smart traders know there’s always going to be another trade. Cut your losses short.

IX. Thou shalt not follow crowds.

If you are around long enough in this business you come to have a healthy appreciation for the theory of contrary opinion. Simply stated when everyone’s bullish, sell. When everyone’s bearish, buy. That’s because historically, the public is usually wrong. But of course, it’s not quite that easy. It is extreme bullishness or bearishness that you look for. It is not enough to see a lot of bulls around. It has to be everyone and their mother is bullish, they’ve put every available dime in the market, and they think «this time it’s different» and the market will never turn bearish again, or at least not for a long time and all corrections are nothing more than buying opportunities. That’s what you look for – then you go the other way. Conversely, when the market has been flat or falling for it seems like forever and everyone’s given up, thrown in the towel, packed it in and sold out all their remaining losing positions saying «I hate this market and I’ll never trade it again.» That’s when you buy with both hands.

X. Thou shalt not step over dollars to save pennies. Also known as «get a broker.»

This may be the most important commandment of all. Although the «highs» you can achieve when you are successfully trading commodities can be spectacular, you must always keep in mind that this is a serious business. And like many things in life, if you haven’t done it before you need someone to help show you the way. You need a guide. If you don’t understand how to read a chart or the proper terminology to use when placing trades, or what supply and demand factors may affect the currency or commodity being considered, then you should open an account with an experienced commodity broker. Although it will cost more, in the long run I believe you will save money. That’s because it takes time to learn how to trade. Most professional traders spend a fair amount of time in the school of hard knocks before succeeding. They need to live through both bull and bear markets to gain the proper perspective. Don’t kid yourself – experience counts. A good broker can help you greatly in your pursuit of profits. And if you get the right one, you can even «earn while you learn.»

What I’ve tried to do in this handbook is focus on the psychology and discipline of successful trading. Remember, if it was as simple as having a degree in economics, or knowing the implication of every known chart formation, there would be substantially more millionaire traders out there. Obviously, it takes more. I hope I’ve been able to help you to become a more successful commodity trader.

Source: Don Varden, www.tradeamerican.com

Essential Vocabulary

1. future n – зд. фьючерсный контракт

2. place stops – отдавать приказ «стоп»

3. stop loss order (SLO) – приказ «остановить убытки»

4. position trade – позиционная торговля на срочных рынках

5. option premium – опционная премия (сумма, уплачиваемая покупателем за опционный контракт)

6. whipsaw n – «продольная пила»; возможность понести двойной убыток при покупке по наивысшей цене перед снижением и продаже по самой низкой цене перед повышением

whipsaw v – понести двойные убытки

7. trailing stop system – система скользящих приказов «стоп»

8. lock-in v – зафиксировать, законтрактовать

9. chart point – точки на графике

10. money management – управление деньгами

11. contingent order – условный приказ

12. stop-limit order – приказ «стоп-лимит»

13. overtrade v – чрезмерная торговля (расширение продаж компании сверх имеющегося у нее оборотного капитала; чрезмерные покупки и продажи брокером для увеличения своих комиссионных доходов)

14. out-of-the-money option – опцион «без денег»

15. round-turn basis – комиссия за две стороны сделки; разовая комиссия брокеру при ликвидации срочной позиции; завершенная фьючерская операция

16. rally n – значительное повышение курса ценных бумаг или товарных цен после снижения, восстановление уровня экономической активности после спада

rally v – повышаться, восстанавливаться после спада или снижения

17. call option – опцион «колл»

18. in-the-money option – опцион «в деньгах»

19.buy long – «длинная» покупка

20. stochastic a – стохастический (переменная величина, которая определяется случаем)

21. ADX (Average Directional Movement Index) line – линия ADX

22. contrary opinion – мнение, противоположное всеобщему

23. bear market – «рынок медведей»

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. Is there a foolproof system in commodity trading? 2. Why is it important to use stop loss orders? 3. What is the most common scenario for turning profits into losses? 4. Why is it necessary to be cool, calm and clearheaded in commodity trading? 5. How much do professional traders risk on a trade? 6. Why is it important not to place all your eggs in one basket? 7. Why is it risky to buy deep out of the money options? 8. How do pros regard trends? 9. How do pros identify the best trades? 10. What is the essence of contrary opinion? 11. Why is it better for amateurs to get an experienced commodity broker?

Exercise 2*. Find terms in the text that match definitions given below and make sentences of your own with each term.

1. a market distinguished by declining prices

2. a market distinguished by rising prices

3. an obligation to exchange a good or instrument at a set price on a future date

4. the purchase of a stock, commodity, or currency for investment or speculation.

5. the selling of a currency or instrument not owned by the seller

6. an order with restrictions on the maximum price to be paid or the minimum price to be received

7. the right (but not the obligation) to buy or sell an asset at a given price on or before a given date

8. a recovery in price after a period of decline

9. order type whereby an open position is automatically liquidated at a specific price

10. slang for a condition of a highly volatile market where a sharp price movement is quickly followed by a sharp reversal

Exercise 3. You are a journalist working for Business Week and you are to interview a prominent Wall Street broker who tries to explain secrets of his success. Make a dialogue between these two individuals using the following briefing material.

The Five Biggest Stock Market Myths

When fiascos like the Enron bankruptcy, and auditing scandals occur, investor confidence can be at an all-time low. Many investors wonder whether or not investing in stocks is worth all the hassle. However, it’s important to keep a realistic view of the stock market. Regardless of the real problems, common myths about the stock market often arise. Here we go over these myths in order to bust them.

1) Investing in stocks is just like gambling.

This reasoning causes many people to shy away from the stock market. To understand why investing in stocks is inherently different from gambling, we need to review what it means to buy stocks. A share of common stock is ownership in a company. It entitles the holder to a claim on assets as well as a fraction of the profits that the company generates. Too often, investors think of shares as simply a trading vehicle, and they forget that stock represents the ownership of a company.

Gambling, on the contrary, is a zero-sum game. It merely takes money from a loser and gives it to a winner. No value is ever created. By investing, we increase the overall wealth of an economy. As companies compete, they increase productivity and develop products that can make our lives better.

2) The stock market is an exclusive club in which only brokers and rich people make money.

Many market advisors claim to be able to call the markets’ every turn. The fact is that almost every study done on this topic has proven that these claims are false. Most market prognosticators are notoriously inaccurate; furthermore, the advent of the Internet has made the market much more open to the public than ever before. All the data and research tools previously available only to brokerages are now there for individuals to use.

Actually, individuals have an advantage over institutional investors because individuals can afford to be long-term oriented. The big money managers are under extreme pressure to get high returns every quarter. Their performance is often so scrutinized that they can’t invest in opportunities that take some time to develop.

3) Fallen angels will all go back up, eventually.

Whatever the reason for this myth’s appeal, nothing is more destructive to amateur investors than thinking that a stock trading near a 52-week low is a good buy. Think of this in terms of the old Wall Street adage, «Those who try to catch a falling knife only get hurt.»

All things being equal, a majority of investors choose the stock that has fallen from $50 because they believe that it will eventually make it back up to those levels again. Thinking this way is a cardinal sin in investing! Price is only one part of the investing equation (which is different from trading, which uses technical analysis). The goal is to buy good companies at a reasonable price. Buying companies solely because their market price has fallen will get you nowhere.

4) Stocks that go up must come down.

The laws of physics do not apply in the stock market. There is no gravitational force that pulls stocks back to even. Over ten years ago, Berkshire Hathaway’s stock price went from $6,000 to $10,000 per share in a little more than a year. Had you thought that this stock was going to return to its lower initial position, you would have missed out on the subsequent rise to $70,000 per share over the following six years

We’re not trying to tell you that stocks never undergo a correction. The point is that the stock price is a reflection of the company. If you find a great firm run by excellent managers, there is no reason the stock won’t keep on going up.

5) Having just a little knowledge, because it is better than none, is enough to invest in the stock market.

Knowing something is generally better than nothing, but it is crucial in the stock market that individual investors have a clear understanding of what they are doing with their money. It’s those investors who really do their homework that succeed.

Don’t fret, if you don’t have the time to fully understand what to do with your money, then having an advisor is not a bad thing. The cost of investing in something that you do not fully understand far outweighs the cost of using an investment advisor.

Source: June 19, 2002, Investopedia.com

Exercise 4*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

Digging Deeper Into Bull And Bear Markets

What Are Bear and Bull Markets?

Used to describe how stock markets are doing in general – that is, whether they are….. or…… in value – these two terms are constantly buzzing around the investing world. At the same time, since the market is determined by investors’……, these terms also denote how investors feel about the market and the ensuing trend.

Simply put, a…… market refers to a market that is on the rise. In such times, investors have faith that the……will continue in the long term. Typically, the country’s……. is strong and……. levels are high.

On the other hand, a…… market is one that is in decline. Share prices are continuously dropping, resulting in a……. trend that investors believe will continue in the long run, which, in turn, perpetuates the spiral. The economy will typically slow down and unemployment will rise as companies begin……. off workers.

Characteristics of a Bull and Bear Market

Although we know that a bull or bear market condition is marked by the direction of……. prices, there are some accompanying characteristics of the bull and bear markets that investors should be aware of.

Supply and demand for securities – In a bull market, we see strong…… and weak……. for securities. As a result…… prices will rise as investors compete to obtain available equity. In a bear market, the opposite is true as more people are looking to….. than……, and, as a result, share prices drop.

Investor psychology – Since the market’s behavior is impacted and determined by how…….. perceive that behavior, investor psychology and sentiment are……. to whether the market will rise or fall. Stock market……. and investor psychology are mutually dependent. In a bull market, most everyone is interested in the market, willingly participating in hopes of obtaining a……. During a bear market, on the other hand, market sentiment is negative as investors are beginning to move their money out of……. and waiting in……. securities until there is a positive move. In sum, the decline in stock market prices shakes investor……… which causes investors to keep their money out of the market – which, in turn, causes the……. in the stock market.

Change in economic activity – Since the businesses whose stocks are……. on the……. are the participants of the greater economy, the stock market and the economy are strongly connected. A bear market is associated with a weak economy as most businesses are unable to……. huge profits because……. are not spending nearly enough. This decline in profits, of course, directly affects the way the market……. stocks. In a bull market, the reverse occurs as people have more money to spend and are willing to spend it, which, in turn……. and strengthens the economy.

How to Gauge Market Changes

The key……. of whether the market is bull or bear is the long-term……., not just the market’s knee-jerk reaction to a particular event. Small movements would only represent a short-term trend or a market……. Of course, the length of the time period that you are viewing will…….. whether or not you see a bull or bear market.

For instance, the last two weeks could have shown the market to be bullish while the last two years may have displayed a bearish……. Thus, most agree that a decided…… in the market should be ascertained by the degree of the change: if…… indexes have changed by at least 15—20%, investors can be quite certain the market has taken a different direction. If the new trend does continue it is because investors are perceiving changes in both market and economic conditions and are thus making…… accordingly.

Not all long movements in the market can be characterized as bull or bear: sometimes a market may go through a period of……. as it tries to find direction. In this case, a series of up and downward movements would actually cancel out gains and losses resulting in a…… market trend.

Source: www.investopedia.com, October 3, 2003 (excerpt)

Terms:

drives, decisions, employment, flat, trend, buy, appreciating, stagnation, fixed income, record, downward, supply, profit, consumers, multiple, individuals, exchanges, performance, depreciating, determine, reversal, attitudes, determinant, bull, trading, uptrend, economy, bear, laying, stock, demand, share, sell, fundamental, equities, confidence, decline, valuates, correction, tendency

Exercise 5. Translate into English.

Обзор рынка: Слово премьера

В среду после заявления премьер-министра Владимира Путина о планируемых налоговых льготах для стимулирования нефтедобычи нефтяные бумаги сразу выросли на 5%, вспоминает ведущий аналитик ГК «Регион» Константин Гуляев. Хотя котировки нефти Brent в течение дня снизились до уровня $123, акции «Сургутнефтегаза» на ММВБ выросли на 10,7%, «Газпром нефти» – на 8,1%, «Роснефти» – на 6,2%, «Транснефти» – на 6%, «Лукойла» – на 5,4%, «Татнефти» – на 3,7%. Акции «Газпрома» поднялись на 2,8% – по мнению Гуляева, здесь сыграла роль передача компании без конкурса месторождений с запасами порядка 3 трлн куб. м газа из фонда стратегических месторождений.

Гуляев считает, что рынок также подогрела статистика по росту потребительских цен в США за апрель, оказавшаяся лучше ожиданий: 0,2% против 0,3%. А Freddie Mac за I квартал показала убыток в $151 млн, т. е. существенно меньше прогнозов. В результате индекс ММВБ вырос на 3,5% до 1904,2 пункта, превысив уровень закрытия 2007 г., а индекс РТС вырос на 6,9% до очередного исторического максимума в 2406 пунктов.

Акции «Уралкалия» на ММВБ выросли на 3,4%, «Норникеля» – на 2,6%. Во втором эшелоне обыкновенные акции «Ленэнерго» подорожали на 12,5%, «Омскэнергосбыта» – на 11,2%, Волжской ТГК – на 10,6%. Тем не менее, по мнению начальника аналитического отдела компании «Атон» Андрея Верникова, рынок все еще перегрет и есть риск снижения индекса РТС до уровня поддержки 2290—2250.

По словам начальника управления конверсионных и межбанковских операций банка «Зенит» Александра Карпова, на международном рынке наблюдалась высокая волатильность курса доллара в диапазоне $1,54-1,55/евро, на российских же площадках доллар вырос с 23,81—23,82 руб./$ до 23,91 руб./$, т. е. превысил уровень поддержки ЦБ примерно на 0,12 руб. Как полагает Карпов, спекулянты, продававшие большие объемы долларов Центробанку в апреле, решили частично закрыть короткие позиции. Ставки по однодневным кредитам не превышали 4% годовых.

Источник: Ведомости, 15.05.08

Lesson 33
Valuation of Russian Companies

Read and translate the text and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

Company Handbook

Figure 1. Renaissance Capital Stock Focus List

Recap of Stock/Sector Performance Year-to-Date

Driven by the ever growing domestic liquidity, the Russian stock market has risen strongly over the year, gaining 26%. The top performers in 2003, similar to in 2002, were second– or even third-tier stocks. The only two «blue chips» to feature in the top 20 best performing companies – Mosenergo and UES – almost doubled in value year-to-date (this is a stark reversal of the situation in 2002 when each of these stocks lost about 25%). 75% of the top 20 best performing stocks come from the utilities sector, implying that the game for control of the sector, which started in 2002, is still on.

Figure 2. The Best Performing Russian Stocks in 2003 Year-to-Date

The list of the worst performing stocks has 4 utilities firms in 2003, but otherwise it is a more diverse group and contains a number of larger companies. Beer stocks were clearly out of favor with investors, with SUN Interbrew falling almost 40%, and Baltika down 10%. Despite the strong rally in the telecoms sector as a whole, two stocks – Far East Telecom and North-West Telecom – lagged behind their peers.

Sector performance is something of a misnomer, as several are comprised of just one or two companies, while others include common and preferred shares, which often distort the overall picture. The banking sector (that is, Sberbank), which was the best performer in Russia in 2002, managed to clinch the second spot in 2003 year-to-date. The utilities sector, which was the only sector that finished down year-on-year in 2002, was the best performing one year-to-date, helped by hefty increases in UES and Mosenergo shares. At the other end of the spectrum were the airlines, and the retail and consumer stocks (led down by SUN Interbrew’s and Baltika’s poor performances).

Figure 3. The Worst Performing Russian Stocks in 2003 Year-to-Date

Finally, all top 20 stocks, except Baltika, have increased in value since the beginning of the year. UES moved up from the middle of the table at the beginning of 2003 to become the 5th largest stock. Following a strong rally in the telecom sector, 6 of the top 20 Russian stocks were telecom companies.

Figure 4. Performance of the Top Russian Stocks in 2003 Year-to-Date

On the Valuation of Russian Equities

Valuation represents only one side of the multilayered decision process behind choosing a stock. Other tangible and less tangible issues, such as, for example, the existence of the earnings momentum, sensitivity to newsflow, and the quality of management, play important roles behind the selection process. Such intangibles have traditionally held more weight in emerging market investment criteria than in developed ones, and continue to do so. This argument naturally pertains to Russia as well, and we argue that valuations can also incorporate intangible considerations.

The RTS is trading at a 2003 P/E of 6.8x, which albeit some 15% higher than at the beginning of the year, still compares favourably with other developing markets. We now take a look at sectors and individual stocks within the Russian investment universe.

The easiest multiple to use is EV/Sales. It is also the least useful of the multiples – the company may have an attractive multiple on a standalone basis, or on a growth-adjusted basis, but nothing would tell us if the company is actually profitable or if it is losing money. One way of avoiding this problem is to compare EV/Sales and Net Margin – clearly the companies with low multiples and high margins are attractive on this scale. Some of the automakers are trading at the lowest multiples, but many of them do not show growth and have low net income margins. Telecom stocks are trading on high multiples, but they are also expected to post the fastest growth and their profit margins are above 15%.

Admittedly, EV/EBITDA is also not the best multiple upon which to focus, taking no consideration, for example, of either taxes or capex. However, given ongoing differences in the reporting standards of Russian companies, EBITDA is frequently the line below which a lot of things go fuzzy. For instance, the Russian Accounting Standards (RAS) – still used by most companies, apart from blue chip stocks with ADRs – treat net income in a very different way from the U.S. GAAP and IAS. It is entirely normal to make social contributions, pay bonuses to employees, or divert funds elsewhere from whatever is called the net income under RAS, and hence RAS reported net income usually shrinks substantially when converted into GAAP figures.

The EBITDA line tends to be less distorted by accounting differences and thus our first step is to focus on it. The average Russian 2003 EV/EBITDA has somewhat increased over the past 5 months and is now about 3.8x, as opposed to 3.2x in January. There are a number of companies, which trade at a substantial discount even to this already low number. However, in most cases, there is a good reason for this – either growth is not there, or the risks are too high. For instance, although many utilities companies are trading at or below 2x EV/EBITDA, the growth is on the low side, but the risks are on the high side. Retailer TsUM shows one of the most impressive growth profiles (37% CAGR in EBITDA), and is also trading at a discount to the average. However, TsUM’s 19%+ weighted average cost of capital (WACC) is substantially above the average, and we are uncertain about its long-term strategy.

PAZ, Wimm-Bill-Dann, Norilsk Nickel, and Baltika are the companies, which, in our view, look appealing on an EV/EBITDA valuation basis, factoring in growth.

TsUM also shows up well on the EV/CF valuation sheet, followed by PAZ. Valuations of Vympelkom, Wimm-Bill-Dann, and Volga Telecom also look quite attractive, once growth is factored in. Tatneft and Surgutneftegas are two of the cheaper stocks by this measure, but there is no growth in Tatneft, while Surgut is no longer trading on fundamentals.

The P/E valuation also highlights the automotive and utilities stocks, and Sberbank, as some of the more attractively valued shares. MTS, Vympelkom, and Wimm-Bill-Dann also look good on growth adjusted measures, albeit that they are trading above the average of 6.8x.

The return on capital employed (ROCE) valuation, which, at least in theory, incorporates all cash items – including taxes, company indebtedness, and capital expenditure – highlights that most of the companies which have positive returns over their WACC have already traded up. Examples are easy to find – YUKOS, Baltika, MTS, Vympelkom, and Sibneft.

The companies which do have a positive spread of ROIC over WACC are LUKOIL, and Zavolzhskiy Motors, and, to a lesser degree, Mosenergo and Norilsk Nickel. While Zavolzhskiy Motors is forecast to keep its ROIC above WACC for the next two years, LUKOIL’s economic returns are forecast to deteriorate in 2004, while those of Norilsk Nickel are expected to improve.

The International Perspective

While looking at the valuations of Russian companies internationally, it has to be borne in mind that while Russian company share prices have been going mostly up, their risk profile has been coming down, allowing more room for price appreciation. After all, valuations are meaningless before they have been compared to growth rates and risks, as measured by WACC.

The single largest change to the WACCs of Russian companies came from the significant reduction in the country risk, as measured by the basket of Eurobonds. The yields of Russian Eurobonds, both sovereign and corporate, have seen a considerable decline in the last 12 months, on average by a 3—3.5 percentage points. To a large degree, however, this is attributable to a significant decline in US dollar yields – the tightening in EMBI spreads was far less steep than the decline in yields. Also, Russian debt yields have been declining in line with peers, as emerging market debt has performed quite well in the low interest rate and low economic growth environment.

However, there are also some Russia-specific factors behind the great performance of Russian debt over the past several months. These include a significant current account surplus, forex reserves nudging the $60 billion mark, a state budget surplus, a growing economy, significantly improved political stability, and some hesitant progress in structural reforms. This is all in sharp contrast with 1997—1998, when the decline in yields was driven by foreign «hot money» rather than fundamentals. In contrast now domestic investor demand in the Eurobond market is more stable than foreign demand. For these reasons, and due to the relatively low chance of rising dollar interest rates this year, we think that Russian debt yields, however ridiculously low they might appear, are sustainable in 2003. And Russia is still trading some healthy 100 basis points (bps) wider than Mexico, which is one investment grade higher, and about 200 bps wider than Poland, which is now trading as a quasi-EU country.

As an example of corporate bonds, the yields of MTS and Vympelkom dollar debt instruments have also declined in the past year. It should be noted, though, that Vympelkom has closed the gap with MTS in terms of the cost of debt, which is due both to an improvement in Vympelkom’s financial results and MTS’ increasing leverage. MTS’ Eurobonds maturing in 2008 now probably serve as the best proxy for the cost of debt for both companies, which we would see in the tight area of around 8%.

Despite the decreasing macro risks, we do not think that there have been many changes, which would allow us to consider Russian equity as any less risky than we did previously. Legislation has not changed much, the corporate governance risks remain the same, the dealings in shares of UES and Surgutneftegas over the past six months have proved that the market remains an «insider’s» place, and the overall breadth of the market – if anything – has worsened. Thus, we do not see any reasons to decrease our six percentage point equity risk premium.

Source: Alexander Kazbegi, Renaissance Capital, Company Handbook, 2003 (excerpt).

Essential Vocabulary

1. recap (recapitulation) – краткое повторение, суммирование

2. year-to-date (YTD) – с начала года до настоящего момента

3. second (third)-tier company – компания второго (третьего) эшелона

4. blue chip – голубая фишка

5. year-on-year (YoY) – в годовом исчислении или в течение года

6. investment universe n – инвестиционная вселенная

7. enterprise value (EV) – ценность предприятия

8. EV/Sales – отношение ценности предприятия к продажам

9. net margin – чистая маржа

10. Earnings before Interest, Tax, Depreciation and Amortization (EBITDA) – прибыль до уплаты процентов, налогов, амортизации материальных и нематериальных активов

11. EV/EBITDA – отношение ценности предприятия к EBITDA

12. Russian Accounting Standards (RAS) – российские стандарты бухучета (РСБУ)

13. Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) – общепринятые стандарты бухгалтерского учета

14. International Accounting Standards (IAS) – международные стандарты финансовой отчетности (МСФО)

15. Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) – кумулятивный годовой темп роста

16. EV/CF – отношение ценности предприятия к денежному потоку

17. Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC) – средневзвешенная стоимость капитала

18. trade up – зд. достичь возможного максимума

19. Return on Invested Capital (ROIC) – доходность инвестированного капитала

20.basket n – корзина (напр. валют)

21. percentage point – процентный пункт

22. Emerging Markets Bond Index (EMBI) – индекс облигаций развивающихся рынков

23. hot money – «горячие деньги» (краткосрочные потоки капитала, обусловленные стремлением воспользоваться более высокими процентными ставками или арбитражной возможностью, «бегство капитала»)

24. basis point (bps) – базисный пункт

25. quasi – якобы, почти, квази-, полу-, кажущийся, подобный

26. equity risk premium – премия за риск, связанный с акциями

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. How did the Russian stock market perform in 2003? 2. Why is it difficult to assess sector performance? 3. What are the aspects that play an important role in the valuation of the emerging market companies? 4. What are the best multiples to use for the valuation of Russian companies? 5. What companies looked good in 2003 according to Renaissance Capital experts? 6. How did Russian companies look from the international perspective in 2003? 7. What were the country-specific developments that contributed to the excellent performance of Russian companies in 2003? 8. What were the risks inherent in Russian stocks?

Exercise 2*. Find terms in the text that match definitions given below and make sentences of your own with each term.

1. 1/100th of 1%

2. shares in leading quoted companies that can be easily bought and sold without influencing their price and are regarded as low-risk investments

3. purchases of long-term assets, such as equipment, used in manufacturing a product

4. risk associated with a cross-border transaction, including but not limited to legal and political conditions

5. a sum of money or other property owned by one person or organization to another

6. a debt instrument issued by a borrower outside of its own country. The currency in which the bond is denominated can be foreign to the buyer, to the purchaser, or to both

7. rules for the preparation of company accounts

8. the total value at market prices of the securities at issue for a company, or a stock market or sector of the stock market

9. of securities, the amount by which the secondary market price exceeds the issue price or par value

10. the difference between two rates or prices

Exercise 3. Explain to the first-time investor in the Russian stock market risks and opportunities inherent in it. Formulate 10 commandments of investing in Russia.

Exercise 4*. Find three synonyms in the text for the term «прибыль», explain the difference in their meaning and make sentences of your own with each term.

Exercise 5*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

Five Investing Pitfalls To Avoid, According to Investor’s Business Daily

Buying Low-Priced Stocks

What sounds better? Buying 1,000 shares of a $1 stock or buying 20 shares of a $50 stock? Most people would probably say the former because it seems like a bargain, with more……… for big increases from owning more shares. But the money you make in a stock isn’t based on how many shares you own; it’s based on the amount of money………

Many investors have a love affair with cheap stocks, but low-priced stocks are generally missing a key ingredient of past stock market winners:……. sponsorship.

A stock can’t make big gains without the buying power of……. funds, banks, insurance companies and other deep-pocketed investors fueling their price moves. It’s not…… trades of 100, 200 or 300 shares that cause a stock to surge higher in price, it’s big institutional…….. share trades of 10,000, 20,000 or more that cause these great jumps in price when they buy – as well as great price drops when they sell.

Institutional investors account for about 70% of the trading……. each day on the……… so it’s a good idea to fish in the same pond as they do.

Remember: Cheap stocks are cheap for a reason. Stocks sell for what they’re…… In many cases, investors that try to grab stocks on the cheap don’t realize that they’re buying a company mired in problems with no institutional sponsorship, slowing…….. and sales growth and shrinking…….. share. Institutions have……. teams that seek out great opportunities, and because they buy in huge quantities over time, consider…….. their choices if you find these fund managers have better-than-average performance.

Avoiding Stocks With High P/E Ratios

«…….. on stocks with low P/E ratios. They’re attractively valued and there’s a lot of……… «How many times have you heard this statement from investment…….?

While it’s true that stocks with low P/E ratios can go higher, investors often misuse this……… metric. Leaders in an industry group often trade at a higher…….. than their…….. for a simple reason: They’re expanding their market share faster because of outstanding earnings and sales growth…….

Stocks on your……. list should have the traits of past big stock market…… we mentioned earlier: leading price performance in their industry group, top-notch earnings and sales growth and rising fund ownership, to name a few. A……. new product or service doesn’t hurt either.

Stocks with «high» P/E ratios share a common trait: their…….. shows there’s plenty of…….. about the company’s future prospects.

Letting Small Losses Turn Into Big Ones

Cut your losses in any stock at 7% or 8% and you’ll never get hit with a big loss: this is your…….. policy. If you buy stocks at the right time, they should never fall 7—8% below your…….. price.

A small loss in a stock can easily be overcome; it’s the big ones that can do serious damage to a…….. Take a 50% loss on a stock, and it would need to rise 100% to get back to…….. But if you cut your losses at 7% or 8%, a single 25%……. can wipe out three 7%—8% losses.

If a stock you own starts to fall on expanding…….. volume, it’s usually better to sell first and ask questions later, rather than the other way around. Keep losses small to avoid severe……. You can always re-enter the……. if you’ve only lost 7%. Don’t ever look back after a smart sell, even if the stock…….. You cannot……. its future, so you are best off reacting to what your stock is telling you right now. Learning this trait is hard – but it will save you a great…… in the long run.

Averaging Down

Averaging down means you’re buying stock as the price falls in the hopes of getting a……. It’s also known as throwing good money after bad or trying to catch a……. knife. Either way, trying to lower your…… cost in a stock is another risky proposition.

Buying Stocks In A Down Market

Some investors don’t pay any attention to the…… state of the market when they buy stocks, and that’s a mistake.

The goal is to buy stocks when the major……. are showing signs of…… (buying: heavy volume price increases) and to sell when they’re showing signs of…… (selling: heavy volume price declines).

When you’re buying stocks, make sure you’re swimming with the market tide, not against it.

Source: November 11, 2004, By Ken Shreve, www.investors.com (abridged)

Terms:

сurrent, portfolio, block, exchanges, bargain, accumulation, deal, distribution, upside, watch, bullishness, piggybacking, opportunity, break-even, focus, trading, falling, invested, prospects, damage, indexes, rebounds, institutional, gains, mutual, retail, purchase, volume, worth, earnings, market, research, pros, valuation, peers, winners, dynamic, performance, insurance, gain, game, forecast, average

Exercise 6. Translate into Russian.

Покупать нельзя продавать

Акции «Транснефти» стали предметом спора крупнейших российских инвесткомпаний. В ответ на рекомендацию Deutsche UFG «продавать» привилегированные акции монополии и снижение их расчетной цены в 4,5 раза «Тройка Диалог» посоветовала инвесторам «покупать» бумаги «Транснефти».

«Транснефть»– нефтепроводная монополия, государству принадлежат 75% акций (100% голосующих), привилегированные акции (25% уставного капитала) обращаются на рынке. Чистая прибыль «Транснефти» по МСФО за девять месяцев 2005 г. – 41,6 млрд руб., выручка – 135,4 млрд руб.

На прошлой неделе Deutsche UFG в 4,5 раза понизил оценку справедливой цены привилегированных акций «Транснефти» – с $2662 до $580 – и рекомендовал инвесторам «продавать» бумаги. Инвестбанк мотивировал свое решение тем, что воспринимает ее теперь не как коммерческое предприятие, работающее для выгоды своих акционеров, а как технический инструмент государства. В результате в пятницу «префы» «Транснефти» в РТС рухнули на 10% (до $2185), на ММВБ – на 8,8% (61 500 руб.).

Другие инвесткомпании не разделяют пессимизма Deutsche UFG. Вчера «Тройка Диалог» вновь повторила рекомендацию «покупать» акции «Транснефти». «Бумаги подешевели на 10%, и мы считаем, что представился удачный момент для их покупки», – говорится в отчете инвесткомпании. «Транснефть» хоть и контролируется государством, но нацелена на получение максимальной прибыли. «Тройка Диалог», как и прежде, считает, что справедливая цена акций «Транснефти» составляет $3150. Инвесткомпания называет их единственными бумагами нефтегазового сектора, которым предстоит существенная переоценка. Соотношение стоимости компании и прогноза EBITDA на 2006 г. у «Транснефти» составляет 3,3, а в среднем по отрасли – 6,2, говорится в отчете.

«Мы не поменяли своего мнения о „Транснефти“, просто отреагировали на 10-процентное падение ее котировок», – поясняет старший аналитик «Тройки Диалог» Олег Максимов. В Deutsche UFG от комментариев отказались.

«Я не помню такого большого разброса в оценке справедливой цены акций компании», – разводит руками начальник аналитического отдела «Атона» Стивен Дашевский. По его мнению, отчеты инвестбанков «оживили торговлю акциями „Транснефти“. Вчера к середине дня „префы“ „Транснефти“ частично отыграли пятничное падение (на 5,5% в ММВБ и 6,18% в РТС), но к вечеру снова подешевели и закрылись почти на уровне пятницы – 60 985 руб. на ММВБ и $2185 в РТС.

Часть инвесторов после взаимоисключающих выводов инвесткомпаний находятся в смятении, отмечает вице-президент отдела продаж «Уралсиба» Александр Захаров: «Те, кто решил следовать рекомендациям Deutsche UFG, будут использовать для этого усиление „префов“ „Транснефти“, а кто хочет купить, наоборот, будут использовать проседания рынка». Сам «Уралсиб» считает «префы» «Транснефти» недооцененными, а пятничное снижение котировок – «отличной возможностью для покупки бумаг».

Вице-президент «Транснефти» Сергей Григорьев говорит, что в его компании «не отслеживают цену привилегированных акций и не знают, кто является миноритарным акционером компании».

Источник: Ведомости, 28.03.06

Lesson 34
Equity Research Report

Read and translate the text and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

Aeroflot: Taking Off

– Aeroflot, Russia’s leading airline, offers attractively valued exposure to strong GDP growth in Russia and increasing disposable incomes.

– We raise our target price for Aeroflot by 42% from $0.7 to $1.0, following the publication of unaudited 9MO3 IAS financials that demonstrated better cost control and working capital management than forecast, and slightly higher than expected revenue growth. We upgrade our recommendation from Hold to Buy.

– If valued at our new target price of $1.0, Aeroflot would still trade at significant discounts to emerging market (EM) and developed market (DM) peers – 48% and 49%, respectively, on 2004 P/E, and 42% and 18% on 2004 EV/EBITDA.

– Aeroflot’s operating performance in 2003 showed resilience to the negative global air transport environment caused by SARS and the war in Iraq. We expect profits of more than $10 million for Aeroflot in 2003, while most DM airlines are expected to report losses.

– Aeroflot will have a new fleet of 27 foreign aircraft – 18 Airbus and 9 Boeing – by year-end 2004. The rationalization of aircraft types in the fleet will reduce maintenance costs and make the company more competitive among foreign peers on international routes.

– Larger Airbus models along with six new IL-96 aircraft will by year-end 2004 boost Aeroflot’s passenger capacity by 17.7% versus 2003, to 29.1 billion available seat kilometers (ASK).

– The company will strengthen its market position relative to domestic competition when it upgrades its fleet of regional aircraft, while grounding outdated aircraft.

– We introduce upgraded projections for Aeroflot’s financials through to 2010 based on 9MO3 unaudited IAS financials and full-year 2003 operating data produced by the company in mid-January.

– Given the recent performance of Aeroflot’s shares, which have gained 44% on a 3-month basis – outperforming the local market by 29% – we see the upside for Aeroflot shares over the next few months being limited to 20%.

Summary Valuation of Aeroflot

Aeroflot Trading Data

Price Drivers

Dividend 2003 announcement – expected at the end of April

Publication of 2003 full-year IAS on June 1—10, 2004

New aircraft leased or purchased, especially regional aircraft

Aeroflot’s monthly publications of 2004 operating results – domestic and international passenger traffic performance are areas to watch

– Quarterly publications of unaudited IAS financials

– Lease of cargo carriers. This would indicate that Aeroflot is looking to improve its position in the air cargo market.

Forecasts Upgraded

We have revisited our forecasts and assumptions for Aeroflot following publication of its 9MO3 unaudited IAS results and full-year 2003 operating data, which demonstrated a higher than expected increase in passenger and cargo turnover, and a higher load factors. We have raised our annual forecasts for Aeroflot’s passenger traffic for 2004—2010 by 2% on average, and we increased our estimates for average international and domestic passenger yields by 0.1 US cents. We have made adjustments to our forecast of the company’s operating costs; specifically, we have reduced our projections for depreciation and personnel.

Our expectation for 2004E EBITDA growth is 22%, and our EBITDA forecast is $296 million (EBITDA margin 16.7%). We expect Aeroflot’s earnings to reach $ 140—150 million, up 22—30% on expected net income of $114 million in 2003.

Price Performance

Aeroflot has outperformed the RTS by 24% over the past 12 months. In the past three months the stock price has gained around 43% on the back of positive changes in the company’s Board of Directors (with three representatives of NRB being elected to the board), positive operating results for 1H03 and 9M03, and the foreign fleet upgrade moving in line with schedule.

Valuation

Aeroflot is presently the best valued among its GEM peers. Despite SARS and the Iraq war, it has sustained stable, though moderate, operational growth in 2003. However, these positives are not yet fully reflected in its valuations.

Aeroflot shares deserve to be traded at, on average, 30—40% discounts to GEM peers on future P/E and EV/EBITDA due to company specific risks. Currently, the discounts are much wider leaving room for some 15—20% price upside.

Elsewhere, Lan Chile and Thai Airways are being offered as buying opportunities to equity investors. Presently, both airlines are valued higher than Aeroflot. Thai Airways is considered to be a play that provides exposure to the unwinding Thai economy and the expected increase in tourism in the region. We argue that SARS and chicken flu are likely to make South-Asian destinations, including Thailand, less attractive, at least in the near future.

Lan Chile is considered to be attractive based on the recovery in the local and international economy, a stable peso, which should boost passenger traffic and import, and its international expansion strategy. We consider Aeroflot close to Lan Chile in terms of high attractiveness as an investment opportunity. Different brokers suggest 14—25% upside for Lan Chile shares, which again underscores our bullish call on Aeroflot. Lan Chile is expected to increase its traffic by 2.6% in 2004, which is significantly lower than Aeroflot’s projected traffic increase of 11.2% in 2004.

Overall, we do not believe that Aeroflot’s discounts to GEM and DM peers are justified by the expected growth rates of relative air transportation markets. Indeed, the Chinese air transport is expected to grow at the fastest rate in 2003—2022 (CAGR 8%), according to Boeing forecasts, while it expects the North American market to grow by 4.1%, the Latin American by 7.3%, and the European by 4.5%. We forecast that the Russian air transport industry will grow by 7.4% (CAGR 2003—2022), which is on a par with the expected Latin American growth and only slightly below the expected Chinese growth. Therefore, Aeroflot deserves to be valued at least on a par with Lan Chile and Thai Airways, i.e. to trade 20—40% higher than it presently trades.

At out target price of $ 1,0, Aeroflot would still trade at significant discounts to GEM and DM peers, which underscores the attractiveness of Aeroflot shares at current price levels and leaves room for further stock price appreciation.

Enterprise Value Compared

We compared Aeroflot with GEM and DM peers with EV below $4 billion. Aeroflot’s EV is close in size to Hainan Airlines, Lan Chile, Malaysian Airlines and Finnair.

Market data shows that investors value Aeroflot below the average of 7.0 EV/EBITDA 2004E at which the selected group of airlines trade.

At the same time, we note positively that Aeroflot operates at EBITDA margin of 16%, which is close to the average for the group of selected companies. It is worth noting that DM airlines operate, on average, at a 9% EBITDA margin, while GEM peers enjoy a 20% average.

Future Earnings Compared

Equity investors value the future earnings of the main Asian airlines higher than, or on a par with, those of the European majors. This is not surprising given the booming emerging Asian economies and moderate economic growth of the Euro-zone countries.

Aeroflot’s future earnings are valued the lowest among global peers, on a par with KLM and Thai Airlines. The fact that Aeroflot’s future earnings are presently valued 56% below the GEM average underscores the attractiveness of the stock and our Buy take on it.

ROCE

Regardless of the way in which return on capital employed is calculated – with or without financial leases included in the net debt position – Aeroflot produces an economic value that allows for ROCE to be higher than its cost of capital, which supports our positive view on the company.

Methods of Target Price Valuation

We used three methods to determine Aeroflot’s target price:

1. Present and future multiples relative to international peers;

2. DCF;

3. EBITDA multiple.

We have already demonstrated that the company is undervalued by more than 40% compared with GEM peers on this year’s multiples.

In our DCF model for Aeroflot for 2004—2010, we use a WACC of 14.3% as a discount rate. The DCF model built for the base-case scenario values the company at $1.20 per ordinary share for the end of 2004. This is our maximum for the fair value. Under DCF, 61% of the present EV comes from the perpetuity period.

Aeroflot DCF Model (Base Case Scenario)

For the WACC calculation, we used methodology, which determines the stock specific equity risk premium based on corporate governance rating (CGR) (1 being the lowest, 10 the highest). Our CGR for Aeroflot is 5.2. This compares with a 6.2 CGR for Baltika, 8.2 for Wimm-Bill-Dann, and 6.5 for SeverstalAvto. For the risk-free rate, we used a 3-month moving average on the mid yield on Russia’s 10-year sovereign bonds.

WACC Calculations

Another valuation method we used is an EV/EBITDA multiple-based calculation. As GEM peers have an average 2005E EBITDA multiple of 7.4, we use 7.0 for Aeroflot’s 2008E EBITDA multiple. The fair value derived from a 2008E EV/EBITDA multiple of 7.0 is $0.85.

We take $1.0 as our 12-month target price, which implies an 18% upside from the current price level.

Source: N. Zagvozdina, V. Tskhovrebov, Renaissance Capital, Aeroflot:

Taking off, Feb. 2004, (excerpt), www.aeroflot.ru

Essential Vocabulary

1. target price – целевая (базовая) цена

2. working capital – оборотный капитал

3. Hold – рекомендация «держать»

4. projection n – проектировка, оценка будущего уровня

5. operating cash flow (OpCF) – операционный денежный поток

6. actual (A) a – фактический (в статистических таблицах)

7. estimate (E) n – оценка (в статистических таблицах)

8. forecast (F) n – прогноз (в статистических таблицах)

9. Committee on Uniform Securities Identification Procedures (CUSIP) – Комитет по единым процедурам идентификации ценных бумаг (США)

10. International Securities Identification Numbers (ISIN) – международные идентификационные номера ценных бумаг

11. not available (n/a) – нет данных (обычно употребляется в таблицах)

12. lease n – аренда

lease v – арендовать

13. load n – груз, бремя, нагрузка, загрузка

load v – грузить, нагружать, заряжать, обременять

14. Russian Trading System (RTS) – Российская торговая система

15. schedule n – опись, список, перечень, расписание; таблица, график

schedule v – составлять список, включать в расписание, назначать, намечать, планировать

16. par n – равенство, паритет, номинал

on (at) par – по номиналу, наравне

17. Euro-zone – зона евро

18. base-case scenario – базовый сценарий

19. unleveraged a – без использования заемных средств

20. terminal value – конечная (терминальная) ценность

21. beta – коэффициент бета (показатель относительной неустойчивости цен акций)

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. Why did Renaissance Capital raise their target price for Aeroflot? 2. Was Aeroflot’s 2003 operating performance affected by the negative global air transportation environment? 3. How will its fleet upgrade affect Aeroflot’s market position? 4. What is the upside potential of Aeroflot, according to Renaissance Capital? 5. What are the key price drivers of Aeroflot? 6. What are the justified discounts for Aeroflot shares? 7. What are the GEM peers that are used for comparison with Aeroflot? 8. What methods did Renaissance Capital use to determine Aeroflot’s target price? 9. What methodology did it use for WACC calculation?

Exercise 2*. Find terms in the text that match definitions given below and make sentences of your own with each term.

1. a nine-digit identifier for securities traded in the United States

2. a method of estimating the value of an asset by taking the cash flows associated with the asset and discounting them for time and risk

3. measurement of the firm’s performance before the effects of financing or taxes

4. a contractual arrangement whereby the firm has the right to use the asset in return for making periodic payments to the owner of the asset

5. the flows of cash arising from the operation of the firm, normally defined as profit after taxes plus non-cash charges such as depreciation

6. the nominal or face value of the share of stock

7. the excess of revenues over expenses during a given time period

8. the difference between the required rate of return on a particular risky asset and the rate of return on a riskless asset with the same expected life

9. an estimate of the value of the cash flows of an investment project generated beyond the final point of the analysis and treated as a cash inflow in the final year of the analysis

10. shares of stock in a company that uses no debt

Exercise 3. Explain the meaning of the words «exposure», «exposed» in the following context and make sentences of your own using these words.

Aeroflot, Russia’s leading airline, offers attractively valued exposure to strong GDP growth in Russia and increasing disposable incomes.

Nowadays, many economies are increasingly exposed to the rigors of international competition.

Exercise 4*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

Company Upgrade. Aeroflot: Better Value All Round

The Aeroflot share price has reached our previous…… of USD1.0. We…….. the price for Russia’s largest airline by 15%, to USD1.15, and reiterate our Buy……..

The upgrade is based on strong 1Q04…….. results that significantly exceeded our expectations. We see three main reasons for this strong……..: (1) continuous growth of GDP and real…….. income per……. in Russia; (2) a strong ruble, which boosted overall…….; and (3) better services, aircraft (through fleet restructuring) and flight…….

We…… our 2004E passenger……. forecast for Aeroflot by 2.4%, and our revenue forecast by 4.3%.

We also revise our future cost…….. upwards, though to a lesser extent than our revenue forecast. Hence, our 2004E EBITDA forecast has increased by 9.4%, and net income by 15.4%, and we expect 2004 earnings to improve by about 33%…….. to USD136 million.

We have increased the…….. rate used in our model following the recent increase in the Russian…….. rate from below 6% to 6.5%. Our new Aeroflot…….. is 16%, compared with 14.3% previously.

Aeroflot has the lowest……. in 2003E and going forward among emerging market (EM) and developed market (DM) airlines. While many large European airlines……. losses in 2003, Aeroflot’s expected 2003 profit is above USD100 million.

The stock presently……. at a 44% discount on 2004E P/E and a 40% discount on EV/EBITDA relative to EM……., despite an 11.7% increase in Aeroflot’s share price since February. Aeroflot’s discounts to DM airlines on 2004E…… are 67% on P/E and 20% on EV/EBITDA.

Source: N. Zagvozdina, V. Tskhovrebov, Renaissance Capital, May 2004, www.aeroflot.ru

Terms:

WACC, consumption, trades, multiples, P/E, target, posted, upgrade, risk-free, disposable, schedules, turnover, year-on-year, recommendation, peers, operating, performance, capita, raise, projections, discount

Exercise 5. Translate into English.

Аэрофлот

Повышение ожидаемой через год цены акций на фоне новых макроэкономических прогнозов

Мы повышаем наши прогнозы прибыли на 2004—2005 гг.

В свете наших новых макроэкономических прогнозов, в частности ожидаемого дальнейшего укрепления рубля в номинальном и реальном выражении и замедления инфляции, мы повышаем наши прогнозы прибыли Аэрофлота на 2004—2005 гг. Мы также уменьшаем используемую ставку дисконтирования с 8,4% до 7,8%, что отражает снижение доходности суверенных еврооблигаций.

Мы повышаем ожидаемую через год цену акций Аэфролота до $0,85 и оставляем в силе рейтинг «держать».

Мы используем анализ, основанный на прогнозируемом оценочном коэффициенте, в качестве основной методики оценки Аэрофлота. В результате указанных выше изменений и повышения используемого нами оценочного коэффициента (обусловленного увеличением оценочных коэффициентов зарубежных аналогов Аэрофлота), мы повышаем ожидаемую через год цену акций Аэрофлота с $0,60 до $0,85. Поскольку избыточный доход по акциям компании составляет 3,5%, мы оставляем в силе рейтинг «держать».

Высокие операционные риски оправдывают дисконты.

Аэрофлот торгуется с EV/EBITDA и P/E на 2004 г., равными 4,5 и 6,2 соответственно, или с дисконтами в 26% и 47% к своим аналогам на развивающихся рынках. Мы считаем такие дисконты полностью оправданными, принимая во внимание высокий риск, связанный с операционной деятельностью Аэрофлота. В частности, нас беспокоит возможное сокращение/отмена выплачиваемых компании роялти, которые в 2004 г., по нашим оценкам, должны составить $259 млн. Кроме того, мы считаем, что наличие в совете директоров Аэрофлота представителей НРБ, который контролирует «Ильюшин Финанс Ко» и ВАСО (производитель самолета Ил-96), может привести к увеличению закупок воздушных судов российского производства, считающихся менее эффективными, чем западные суда.

Стимулом роста может стать более агрессивное сокращение расходов.

Мы полагаем, что к опережающему росту акций Аэрофлота может привести более быстрое, чем ожидалось, выполнение программы по сокращению расходов. Мы также считаем, что решение правительства об отсрочке отмены роялти может стать дополнительным стимулом.

Новые финансовые прогнозы

Мы пересматриваем нашу финансовую модель для Аэрофлота, что в основном обусловлено нашими новыми макроэкономическими прогнозами. Укрепление рубля практически не способствует повышению прибыли, поскольку в долларах компания получает примерно 54% от общей выручки и несет около 58% расходов. Согласно нашей модели, при использовании новых прогнозов среднегодового обменного курса, равных 28 руб./$ в 2004 г. и 27,5 руб./$ в 2005 г., выручка Аэрофлота увеличивается на 2% в 2004 г. и 3% в 2005 г. относительно прежних прогнозов. Позитивное влияние более высокой долларовой выручки должно частично компенсироваться ростом расходов на топливо, которые на данный момент составляют 20% от суммарных затрат (наша глобальная группа анализа нефтяного сектора повысила прогнозы средней цены на нефть марки Brent до $24,5/барр. на 2004 г. и $21,5/барр. на 2005 г.). В результате перечисленных изменений наш прогноз прибыли Аэрофлота возрастает с $133 млн до $139 млн в 2004 г. и со $115 млн до $127 млн в 2005 г.

Для оценки Аэрофлота мы используем анализ, основанный на прогнозируемом оценочном коэффициенте. Ранее мы использовали коэффициент EV/EBITDA на 2005 г., равный 4,0. Однако за последние месяцы акции зарубежных аналогов Аэрофлота сильно выросли в цене, и в результате средний показатель для компаний развивающихся рынков (GEM) увеличился с 5,5 до 6,1. Хотя мы по-прежнему считаем, что Аэрофлот должен торговаться с дисконтом к своим аналогам на GEM из-за низкой ликвидности и операционных рисков, мы переходим к использованию коэффициента, равного 4,5, что примерно соответствует изменению в оценочных коэффициентах компаний GEM. Для расчета ставки дисконтирования мы берем стоимость капитала, равную 7,8%.

Стоимость капитала представляет собой сумму доходности еврооблигаций с погашением в 2005 г., равной 2,84%, и премии за риск, равной 5%. В результате мы получаем справедливую стоимость акций компании через 12 месяцев в размере $0,85, что выше нашей прежней ожидаемой через год цены, равной $0,60, и означает прогнозируемый избыточный доход 3,5%. Как следствие, мы сохраняем рейтинг «держать» для Аэрофлота.

Источник: Brunswick UBS, Дмитрий Виноградов,

CFA, 22 января 2004 г., www.aeroflot.ru

Lesson 35
Successful Investment Strategy: Theory and Practice

Read and translate the texts and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

Modern Portfolio Theory: An Overview

If you were to craft the perfect investment, you would want high returns coupled with little risk. The reality, of course, is that this kind of investment is next to impossible to find. Not surprisingly, people spend a lot of time developing methods and strategies that come close to the «perfect investment». But none is as popular, or as compelling, as modern portfolio theory (MPT).

The Theory

MPT was developed by Harry Markowitz and published in the 1952 Journal of Finance. MPT says that it is not enough to look at the expected risk and return of one particular stock. By investing in more than one stock, an investor can reap the benefits of diversification – chief among them, a reduction in the riskiness of the portfolio.

For most investors, the risk they take when they buy a stock is that the return will be lower than expected. In other words, it is the deviation from the average return. Each stock has its own standard deviation from the mean, which MPT calls «risk».

The risk in a portfolio of diverse individual stocks will be less than the risk inherent in holding any single one of the individual stocks (provided the risks of the various stocks are not directly related). Consider a portfolio that holds two risky stocks: one that pays off when it rains and another that pays off when it doesn’t rain. A portfolio that contains both assets will always pay off, regardless of whether it rains or shines. Adding one risky asset to another can reduce the overall risk of an all-weather portfolio.

Markowitz showed that investment is not just about picking stocks, but about picking winners, i.e. choosing the right combination of stocks among which to distribute one’s nest eggs.

Two Kinds of Risk

MPT states that the risk for individual stock returns has two components:

Systematic Risk – These are market risks that cannot be diversified away. Interest rates, recessions and wars are examples of systematic risks.

Unsystematic Risk – Also known as «specific risk», this risk is specific to individual stocks and can be diversified away as you increase the number of stocks in your portfolio (see Figure 1). It represents the component of a stock’s return that is not correlated with general market moves.

For a well-diversified portfolio, the risk of each stock contributes little to portfolio risk. Instead, it is the difference – or covariance – between individual stocks’ levels of risk that determines overall portfolio risk. As a result, investors benefit from holding diversified portfolios instead of individual stocks.

The Efficient Frontier

Now that we understand the benefits of diversification, the question of how to identify the best level of diversification arises. Enters the efficient frontier.

For every level of return, there is one portfolio that offers the lowest possible risk, and for every level of risk, there is a portfolio that offers the highest return. These combinations can be plotted on a graph, and the resulting line is the efficient frontier. Figure 2 shows the efficient frontier for two stocks – a high risk/high return technology stock (Google) and a low risk/low return consumer products stock (Coca Cola).

Any portfolio that lies on the upper part of the curve is efficient: it gives the maximum expected return for a given level of risk. A rational investor will hold a portfolio that lies somewhere on the efficient frontier. The maximum level of risk that the investor will take on determines the position of the portfolio on the line.

Figure 1

MPT takes this idea even further. It suggests that combining a stock portfolio that sits on the efficient frontier with a risk-free asset, the purchase of which is funded by borrowing, can actually increase returns beyond the efficient frontier. Thus, if you were to borrow to acquire a risk-free stock, then the remaining stock portfolio could have a riskier profile and, therefore, a higher return than you might otherwise choose.

Figure 2

What MPT Means for You

MPT has had a marked impact on how investors perceive risk, return and portfolio management. The theory demonstrates that portfolio diversification can reduce investment risk. Modern money managers routinely follow its precepts.

However, MPT has some shortcomings in the real world. It often requires investors to rethink notions of risk. Sometimes it demands that the investor take on a perceived risky investment (futures, for example) in order to reduce overall risk. That can be a tough sell to an investor not familiar with the benefits of sophisticated portfolio management techniques. Furthermore, MPT assumes that it is possible to select stocks whose individual performance is independent of other investments in the portfolio. But market historians have shown that there are no such instruments; in times of market stress, seemingly independent investments do, in fact, act as though they are related.

Likewise, it is logical to borrow to hold a risk-free asset and increase your portfolio returns, but finding a truly risk-free asset is another matter. Government-backed bonds are presumed to be risk free, but, in reality, they are not. Securities such as gilts and U.S. Treasury bonds are free of default risk, but expectations of higher inflation and interest rate changes can both affect their value.

Then there is the question of the number of stocks required for diversification. How many is enough? Investment guru William J. Bernstein says that even 100 stocks is not enough to diversify away unsystematic risk. By contrast, Edwin J. Elton and Martin J. Gruber, in their book «MPT and Investment Analysis», conclude that you would come very close to achieving optimal diversity after adding the twentieth stock.

Conclusion

The gist of MPT is that the market is hard to beat and that the people who beat the market are those who take above-average risk. It is also implied that these risk takers will get their comeuppance when markets turn down.

Then again, investors such as Warren Buffett remind us that portfolio theory is just that – theory. At the end of the day, a portfolio’s success rests on the investor’s skills and the time he or she devotes to it.

Source: March 14, 2006; By Ben McClure, investopedia

Warren Buffett: How He Does It

Did you know that a $10,000 investment in Berkshire Hathaway in 1965, the year Warren Buffett took control of it, would grow to be worth nearly $30 million by 2005? By comparison, $10,000 in the S&P 500 would have grown to only about $500,000. Whether you like him or not, Buffett’s investment strategy is arguably the most successful ever. With a sustained compound return this high for this long, it’s no wonder Buffett’s legend has swelled to mythical proportions. But how did he do it?

Buffett’s Philosophy

Warren Buffett descends from the Benjamin Graham school of value investing. Value investors look for securities with prices that are unjustifiably low based on their intrinsic worth. Determining intrinsic value can be a bit tricky as there is no universally accepted way to obtain this figure. Most often intrinsic worth is estimated by analyzing a company’s fundamentals. Like bargain hunters, value investors seek products that are beneficial and of high quality but underpriced.

Warren Buffett takes this value investing approach to another level. Many value investors aren’t supporters of the efficient market hypothesis, but they do trust that the market will eventually start to favor those quality stocks that were undervalued. Buffett doesn’t think in these terms. He isn’t concerned with the activities of the stock market.

He chooses stocks solely on the basis of their overall potential as a company. Holding these stocks as a long-term play, Buffett seeks not capital gain but ownership in quality companies extremely capable of generating earnings. When Buffett invests in a company, he isn’t concerned with whether the market will eventually recognize its worth; he is concerned with how well that company can make money as a business.

Buffett’s Methodology

Buffett finds low-priced value by asking himself some questions when he evaluates the relationship between a stock’s level of excellence and its price.

1. Has the company consistently performed well?

Sometimes return on equity is referred to as «stockholder’s return on investment». It reveals the rate at which shareholders are earning income on their shares. Buffett always looks at ROE to see whether or not a company has consistently performed well in comparison to other companies in the same industry.

Looking at the ROE in just the last year isn’t enough. The investor should view the ROE from the past five to 10 years to get a good idea of historical performance.

2. Has the company avoided excess debt?

Gearing is another key characteristic Buffett considers carefully. Buffett prefers to see a small amount of debt so that earnings growth is being generated from shareholders’ equity as opposed to borrowed money. Debt to equity ratio shows the proportion of equity and debt the company is using to finance its assets, and the higher the ratio, the more debt is financing the company. A high level of debt compared to equity can result in volatile earnings and large interest expenses.

3. Are profit margins high? Are they increasing?

The profitability of a company depends not only on having a good profit margin but also on consistently increasing this profit margin. This margin is calculated by dividing net income by net sales. To get a good indication of historical profit margins, investors should look back at least five years. A high profit margin indicates the company is executing its business well, but increasing margins means management has been extremely efficient and successful at controlling expenses.

4. How long has the company been public?

Buffett typically considers only companies that have been around for at least 10 years. As a result, most of the technology companies that have had their IPOs in the past decade wouldn’t get on Buffett’s radar (not to mention the fact that Buffett will invest only in a business that he fully understands, and he admittedly does not understand what a lot of today’s technology companies actually do). It makes sense that one of Buffet’s criteria is longevity: value investing means looking at companies that have stood the test of time but are currently undervalued.

Never underestimate the value of historical performance, which demonstrates the company’s ability (or inability) to increase shareholder value. Do keep in mind that the past performance of a stock does not guarantee future performance – the job of the value investor is to determine how well the company can perform, as well as it did in the past. Determining this is tricky, but evidently Buffett is very good at it.

5. Do the company’s products rely on a commodity?

Initially you might think of this question as a radical approach to narrowing down a company. Buffett, however, sees this question as an important one. He tends to shy away from companies whose products are indistinguishable from those of competitors, and those that rely solely on a commodity such as oil and gas. If the company does not offer anything different than another firm within the same industry, Buffett sees little that sets the company apart. Any characteristic that is hard to replicate is what Buffett calls a company’s economic moat, or competitive advantage. The wider the moat, the tougher it is for a competitor to gain market share.

6. Is the stock selling at a 25% discount to its real value?

This is the kicker. Finding companies that meet the other five criteria is one thing, but determining whether they are undervalued is the most difficult part of value investing, and Buffett’s most important skill. To check this, an investor must determine the intrinsic value of a company by analyzing a number of business fundamentals, including earnings, revenues and assets. And a company’s intrinsic value is usually higher than its liquidation value.

Once Buffett determines the intrinsic value of the company, he compares it to its current market cap. If his measurement of intrinsic value is at least 25% higher than the company’s market cap, Buffett sees the company as one that has value. Sounds easy, doesn’t it? Well, Buffett’s success depends on his unmatched skill in accurately determining this intrinsic value. While we can outline some of his criteria, we have no way of knowing exactly how he gained such precise mastery of calculating value

Conclusion

Buffett’s investing style, like the shopping style of a bargain hunter, reflects a practical, down-to-earth attitude. Buffett maintains this attitude in other areas of his life: he doesn’t live in a huge house, he doesn’t collect cars and he doesn’t take a limousine to work. The value-investing style is not without its critics, but whether you support Buffett or not, the proof is in the pudding. As of 2004, he holds the title of the second-richest man in the world, with a net worth of more $40 billion (Forbes 2004).

Source: April 22, 2005; investopedia

Essential Vocabulary

1. modern portfolio theory (MPT) – современная теория портфеля

2. standard deviation – стандартное отклонение

3. mean n – среднее значение, середина

4. inherent a – внутренний, внутренне присущий

5. picking winners – выбор победителей (выбор компаний с большим потенциалом развития как объекта капиталовложений)

6. nest eggs – деньги, откладываемые на «черный» день, для получения дохода после выхода на пенсию или для крупной покупки

7. systematic risk – систематический или рыночный риск

8. unsystematic (specific) risk – несистемный риск

9. covariance n – ковариация

10. efficient frontier – эффективная граница

11. risk-free – безрисковый

12. portfolio management – управление портфелем

13. gilts n, pl (gilt-edged securities) – ценные бумаги «с золотым обрезом» (первоклассные, самые надежные облигации)

14. risk taker – идущий на риск инвестор

15. compound a – начисляемый, кумулятивный, сложный (процент)

16. value investing – инвестиции в акции компаний с высокой дивидендной доходностью и низким отношением цены к прибыли

17.intrinsic a – внутренний

18. efficient market hypothesis (ЕМН) – гипотеза эффективного рынка (гипотеза, по которой при полном доступе рынка к информации цена акции на данный момент является лучшей оценкой будущей цены)

19. return on equity (ROE) – доходность собственного капитала

20. gearing n – отношение заемного капитала к собственному

21. kicker n – «завлекалочка» (дополнительное условие, повышающее привлекательность для инвестора)

22. liquidation value – ликвидационная ценность

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. What is the essence of the modern portfolio theory? 2. Why is the risk in a portfolio of diverse individual stocks less than the risk of holding a single individual stock? 3. What kinds of risk does MPT identify? 4. What is the efficient frontier? 5. What are the shortcomings of MPT? 6. Does MPT work well in practice? 7. What is Warren Buffet’s investment philosophy? 8. What are the questions that Warren Buffet asks when he evaluates stocks? 9. Can everybody become rich by using his methods?

Exercise 2*. Find terms in the text that match definitions given below and make sentences of your own with each term.

1. interest figured on both the initial principal and the interest earned in prior periods

2. investing in more than one type of asset in order to reduce risk

3. a market in which current market prices impound all available information and are a fair reflection of the true value of a financial asset

4. the use of debt or borrowing to finance investment

5. a measure of return on investment in which investment is defined as the net worth of the firm (profit after taxes divided by net worth)

6. an investor who will pay for the opportunity to gamble

7. the probability-weighted measure of the dispersion of possible outcomes around an expected value; a statistical measure of risk

8. the part of total risk that is related to the general economy or to the stock market as a whole; the risk that cannot be eliminated by diversification

9. the part of total risk that is unique to the company or asset; the risk that can be eliminated by diversification

Exercise 3. Discuss in class Warren Buffet’s criteria for selecting companies to invest in and the results of Buffet’s test for Rosneft (see below the analysis provided by Smart Money). Analyze other Russian companies in the same way and pass your own verdict.

Тест Баффета: «Роснефть»

Уоррен Баффет – самый успешный инвестор планеты. Для выбора объекта инвестиций он выработал собственные критерии. Специально для Smart Money аналитики Банка Москвы, ИК БКС и ИБ «КИТ Финанс» оценивают по этим критериям российские компании

Объект анализа: «Роснефть»

Штаб-квартира: Москва

Бизнес: добыча и переработка нефти и газа

Место в отрасли: 1-е (по добыче и переработке нефти в РФ)

Доля рынка:

23% (добыча нефти в РФ)

22% (переработка нефти в РФ)

Капитализация: $104,9 млрд

Выручка:^[5] $49,2 млрд

Чистая прибыль:^[6] $12,9 млрд

Президент: Сергей Богданчиков

Источник: «Роснефть», РТС, Банк Москвы

1. Достаточно ли информации о бизнесе компании? 4,00

Вполне. Регулярно публикуются ежеквартальная финотчетность по US GAAP, анализ результатов деятельности в отчете менеджмента.

2. Как компания проявила себя за последние годы? 5,00

Компания демонстрирует положительные темпы роста добычи даже без учета новых приобретений. Присоединив в 2007 г. активы ЮКОСа, эмитент заметно улучшил производственную структуру.

3. Есть ли долгосрочные перспективы? 4,67

Безусловно. «Роснефть» готовит к запуску Ванкорский проект, который должен стать основой для поставок нефти по трубопроводу Восточная Сибирь – Тихий океан. Активы в сахалинских проектах в обозримом будущем станут хорошей ресурсной базой.

4. Действуют ли менеджеры компании рационально? 4,00

В целом да. Но «Роснефть» – госкомпания, поэтому зачастую действия менеджеров подчинены интересам государства, а не логике бизнеса.

5. Открыты ли менеджеры? 3,67

Менеджеры «Роснефти» вполне открыты. Но комментарии в основном носят общий характер, конкретику получить сложно.

6. Ставят ли менеджеры интересы акционеров выше своих? 4,00

В планах компании – запуск опционной программы поощрения менеджмента. Пока руководство должным образом не будет мотивировано, сложно рассчитывать на то, что при принятии решений всегда будут учитываться интересы миноритариев – в частности, по увеличению капитализации.

7. Насколько рентабельна компания? 4,67

Рентабельность по EBITDA и чистой прибыли в 2007 г. составила 28 и 26% (в 2006 г. – 22 и 11%), что сопоставимо с компаниями-аналогами. В 2008 г. норма EBITDA и чистой прибыли ожидается на уровне 25—26% и 16—17%.

8. Достаточен ли свободный денежный поток для акционеров? 3,67

По итогам 2007 г. FCF (без учета конкурсного производства от НК ЮКОС) составил $3 млрд. Показатель за 2006 г. – $2,1 млрд. На дивиденды «Роснефть» направляет 13% чистой прибыли (другие представители отрасли – 17—20%).

9. Какова отдача на вложенный капитал? 4,27

По итогам 2007 г. ROE составила 58,8% (в 2006 г. – 47,5%). Рост за прошедший год вызван как увеличением объемов добычи и переработки, так и разовым доходом, связанным со взысканием долга с предприятий ЮКОСа. В 2008 г. прогнозируется снижение показателя до 20,3%.

10. Есть ли у компании явное конкурентное преимущество? 4,67

К преимуществам «Роснефти» можно отнести ресурсную базу: компания обладает самыми большими запасами углеводородов в России.

11. Какова справедливая цена акций компании? 3,93

Справедливая цена одной акции «Роснефти» составляет $14,11, потенциал роста – 46%, рекомендация – покупать.

ИТОГО: 4,25

Вердикт Smart Money: Баффет купит.

Источник: Smart Money, 21 апреля 2008 г.

Exercise 4*. Find antonyms for the following terms and make sentences of your own with each pair.

Example: call option – put option

high-grade bond —……

risk tolerant —……..

free trade —……..

appreciation —……….

ask price —………….

bull market —………

debt financing —……….

assets —……….

buy-side —……….

executive directors —………

Exercise 5*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

What’s Better, Value or Growth… Well, it Depends

There has recently been significant media interest in analyzing…… managers’ investment styles and the way this influences their funds’ returns. Some media attention has focused on determining which is the ‘best’ investment style, in particular, predicting which style will suit the current investment……

Selecting a manager based on their consistent approach to investing, their investment capabilities and an ability to complement other managers is sound investment…….

Value and Growth Investing in Theory

A manager’s style (or philosophy) is a reflection of their…….. approach to investing. A value manager aims to determine the most appropriate price they should pay for a security relative to the…….. that security can produce over time.

Value managers believe that markets are affected by many factors including emotion, and shares can trade above and below their……. value at certain times. They aim to exploit market conditions, searching for…….. shares, buying them when they represent good value and selling once they become……..

Growth managers, on the other hand, concentrate on shares that focus on providing…….. future growth, with less emphasis on their current price.

Does it Work in Practice?

Traditionally, it was possible to determine a manager’s investment style based on the shares held in their…….. Recently, however, this distinction has become blurred. A growth manager, for example, would rarely admit to buying overpriced stocks simply for their…….. potential. Similarly, a value manager would not purchase a stock because it was………. if it didn’t show signs of profit growth. Most managers rely on their rigorous……… and analysis techniques and their selection……. to determine which shares to purchase or sell – regardless of whether they have been categorized as value or growth shares in the past.

Many factors affect share prices, including investor……. At times, certain shares will appear cheap or expensive depending on the……. placed on them by the market. Technology or telecommunications shares, for example, have been categorized as growth shares because of the strong…….. they have provided in recent times and the expectation of continued strong growth in the future. Does this mean that they can not become part of a value manager’s portfolio? Not necessarily. As well as growth potential, a value manager would judge these shares based on their ability to deliver an appropriate income……. relative to their current price, their sound business……. and long term…….

As a result, value and growth managers may…… similar shares, but at different times. One benefit of including both investment styles in your portfolio is…….. that this creates. Value and growth styles can complement each other, resulting in better overall…….. of your investment.

What’s Better – Value or Growth?

One investment style is no better or worse than another – they are just different. When selecting appropriate portfolios for your clients, diversification between…….. classes is important. However, another…….. to diversification can be achieved in your portfolio by selecting managers with different investment styles.

Source: www.rothschild.com.au

Terms:

diversification, outlook, returns, bargain-priced, sentiment, hold, dimension, asset, fund, upside, environment, screening, practices, income, advice, fundamental, fair, overpriced, superior, portfolios, undervalued, criteria, value, stream, performance

Exercise 6. Translate into English.

В чем секрет «Оракула из Омахи»?

Инвестиционные принципы Уоррена Баффета

Уоррен Баффет, по убеждению большинства его коллег, – самый удачливый инвестор, который сделал свой капитал, инвестируя в акции. Впрочем, слово «удача» здесь, вероятно, не самое уместное. В выборе акций Баффет придерживается исключительно фундаментального анализа – он выбирает акции по финансовым и производственным показателем компаний-эмитентов. Он покупает не просто акции, а успешный бизнес, который стоит за этими ценными бумагами. При этом Баффет предпочитает те акции, которые, по его мнению, на момент покупки недооценены. Безусловно, Баффет долгосрочный инвестор – в среднем он держит акции 10 лет. И, по его словам, его не волнует, что случится на бирже после того, как он купил акции. По его собственному признанию, хорошие акции он будет держать ровно столько, сколько эти акции будут способны приносить прибыль. Продавать раньше времени он их не будет, и это, возможно, несколько снижает финансовые показатели Berkshire Hathaway – так считает сам Баффет.

«Основной секрет успешного инвестирования, – говорит Баффет, прозванный „Оракулом из Омахи“ за свое инвестиционное чутье, – выбрать хорошие акции в нужное время и держать их до тех пор, пока эти акции остаются хорошими».

Стратегия Баффета изложена в 13 принципах корпоративного управления, сформулированных им в 1983 г. Во-первых, Баффет рассматривает себя, других руководителей компании Berkshire и акционеров компании не как стороны сделки по купле-продаже акций, а как партнеров, совместно инвестирующих свои средства в акции. И это не пустые слова. В своем письме акционерам Баффет однажды признался, что 99% его личного состояния вложены в акции Berkshire Hathaway. Его ближайший соратник Чарли Мангер инвестировал 90%. Долями в Berkshire Hathaway также владеют члены семей директоров компании, их друзья и знакомые. По словам Баффета, такой подход оправдывает себя, так как высокая диверсификация вложений Berkshire существенно снижает их рискованность. Кроме того, Баффет утверждает, что такая стратегия инвестирования подчеркивает принцип партнерства директоров и акционеров холдинга – если несут убытки акционеры, пропорциональные убытки несут и директора компании.

Очень важный принцип Баффета – невмешательство в оперативное руководство купленными компаниями. «Оракул из Омахи» покупает компанию, которая кажется ему привлекательной, и единственное оперативное решение, которое он принимает, – назначение или переназначение генерального директора компании и определение размера и порядка его вознаграждения. Как правило, вознаграждение предусматривает получение управляющими опционов на акции компании при достижении определенных результатов. Все остальные решения остаются на совести управляющего. В подавляющем большинстве случаев такой подход себя опять же оправдывает – стремясь повысить собственное вознаграждение, управляющие повышают и капитализацию компании, чего и добивается Баффет.

Минимизация рисков – один из краеугольных камней стратегии Баффета. По его собственному признанию, он скорее откажется от интересного приобретения, нежели пойдет на увеличение долгового бремени своей компании. Не случайно его холдинг Berkshire Hathaway является сейчас одним из всего лишь семи эмитентов, обладающих высшим кредитным рейтингом по версии агентства Moody’s – Aaa. Высокий кредитный рейтинг обеспечивает Баффету низкую стоимость капитала. Баффет полагает, что одним из главных зол, наносящих ущерб современной экономике, является неправильная система распределения вознаграждений среди участников финансового рынка. По его мнению, значительная часть транзакций на фондовом рынке рекомендуется и производится ради личного обогащения посредников – различного рода брокеров и трейдеров. Было бы вполне разумным ограничить число разрешенных транзакций для каждого человека в течение всей его жизни. Баффет приводит цифру 10 – не более десяти транзакций в жизни для каждого из участников финансовых рынков.

В числе компаний, на акции которых приходилась наибольшая доля в 47-миллиардных активах Berkshire по состоянию на 31 декабря 2005 г., – American Express Ameriprise Financial Anheuser-Busch, Coca-Cola, M&T Bank, Moody’s, PetroChina, Procter & Gamble, Wal-Mart, Washington Post, Wells Fargo, White Mountains Ins. Эти данные содержатся в годовом отчете Berkshire Hathaway за 2005 г. По итогам 2005 г. прибыль Berkshire Hathaway выросла на 16,6% до $8,5 млрд, или $5538 в пересчете на акцию. В 2004 году прибыль составила $7,31 млрд, или $4753 на акцию. За год было инициировано 5 сделок по поглощению. Балансовая стоимость акций Berkshire выросла на 6,4%. Акции Berkshire Hathaway не подвергались дроблению 41 год.

Source: www.k2kapital.org

Lesson 36
Corporate Finance

Read and translate the text and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

Corporate Finance for Beginners

The role of a corporation’s management is to increase the value of the firm to its shareholders while observing applicable laws. Corporate finance deals with the strategic financial issues associated with achieving this goal.

Balance Sheet Approach to Valuation

Managers can make better decisions if they can predict the impact of those decisions on the firm’s value. A simple way of valuing the equity of a company is to subtract its liabilities from assets. However, this book value has little resemblance to the real value of the company. First, the assets are recorded at historical costs. Second, assets such as trademarks, loyal customers, and talented managers do not appear on the balance sheet but may significantly affect the firm’s ability to generate profits.

Cash vs. Profits

Another way to value the firm is to consider the future flow of cash. Since cash today is worth more than the same amount of cash tomorrow, a valuation model based on cash flow can discount the value of cash received in future years. Decisions about finances affect operations and vice versa. The firm’s working capital flows in a cycle, beginning with cash that may be converted into equipment and raw materials. Additional cash is used to convert the raw materials into inventory, which then is converted into receivables and eventually back to cash, completing the cycle. The goal is to have more cash at the end of the cycle than at the beginning.

The change in cash is different from accounting profits. A company can report consistent profits but still become insolvent. For example, if the firm extends customers increasingly longer periods of time to settle their accounts, even though the reported earnings do not change, the cash flow will decrease.

Note also the distinction between cash and equity. Shareholders’ equity is the sum of common stock at par value, additional paid-in capital, and retained earnings. Shareholders’ equity is on the opposite side of the balance sheet from cash. Shareholder equity changes due to three things: 1) net income or losses; 2) payment of dividends; 3) share issuance or repurchase. Changes in cash are reported by the cash flow statement, which organizes the sources and uses of cash into three categories: operating activities, investing activities, and financing activities.

Cash Cycle

The duration of the cash cycle is the time between the date the inventory is paid for and the date the cash is collected from the sale of the inventory. A company’s cash cycle is important as it affects the need for financing. The cash cycle is calculated as:

days in inventory + days in receivables – days in payables

Financing requirements will increase if either of the following occurs:

– Sales increase while the cash cycle remains fixed in duration.

– Sales remain flat but the cash cycle increases in duration.

Revenue, Expenses, and Inventory

A firm’s income is calculated by subtracting its expenses from its revenue.

However, not all costs are considered expenses; accounting standards and tax laws prohibit the expensing of costs incurred in the production of inventory. These costs must be allocated to inventory accounts and appear as assets on the balance sheet. Once the finished goods are drawn from inventory and sold, these costs are reported on the income statement as the cost of goods sold (COGS).

Assets

Assets can be classified as current assets and long-term assets. It is useful to know the number of days of certain assets and liabilities that a firm has on hand:

Accounts receivable (A/R)

Number of days of A/R = (accounts receivable / annual credit sales) (365).

This also is known as the collection period.

Inventory

Number of days of inventory = (inventory / annual COGS) (365).

This also is known as the inventory period.

Payables

Number of days of accounts payable = (accounts payable / COGS) (365),

assuming that all accounts payable are for the production of goods (payables period).

Financial Ratios

A firm’s performance can be evaluated using various financial ratios (see lesson 37).

Bank Loans

Bank loans can be classified according to their durations. There are short-term loans (one year or less), long-term loans (also known as term loans), and revolving loans that allow one to borrow up to a specified credit level at any time over the duration of the loan. Some «evergreen» revolving loans automatically renew at maturity.

Sources and Uses of Cash

It can be worthwhile to know where a firm’s cash is originating and how it is being used. There are two sources of cash: reducing assets or increasing liabilities or equity. A company uses cash by increasing assets or decreasing liabilities or equity.

Firm Value, Equity Value, and Debt Value

The value of the firm is the value of its assets, or the present value of the unlevered free cash flow resulting from the use of those assets. In the case of an all-equity financed firm, the equity value is equal to the firm value. When the firm has issued debt, the debt holders have a priority claim on their interest and principal, and the equity holders have a residual claim. The sum of the value of the debt and the value of the equity then is equal to the value of the firm, ignoring the tax benefits from the interest paid on the debt. Considering taxes, the effective value of the firm will be higher since a levered firm has a tax benefit from the interest paid on the debt.

Capital Structure

The proportion of a firm’s capital structure supplied by debt and by equity is reported as either the debt to equity ratio (D/E) or as the debt to value ratio (D/V), the latter of which is equal to the debt divided by the sum of the debt and the equity.

Risk Premiums

Business risk is the risk associated with a firm’s operations. It is the undiversifiable volatility in the operating earnings (EBIT). Business risk is affected by the firm’s investment decisions. A measure for the business risk is the asset beta, also known as the unlevered beta. The return on assets of a firm can be expressed as a function of the risk-free rate and the business risk premium (BRP):

rA = rF + BRP

Financial risk is associated with the firm’s capital structure and magnifies the business risk of a firm. Financial risk is affected by the firm’s financing decision.

Total corporate risk is the sum of the business and financial risks and is measured by the equity (levered) beta. The business risk premium (BRP) and financial risk premium (FRP) are reflected in the levered (equity) beta, and the return on levered equity can be written as:

rE = rF + BRP + FRP

Debt beta is a measure of the risk of a firm’s defaulting on its debt. The return on debt can be written as:

rD = rF + default risk premium

Cost of Capital

The cost of capital is the rate of return that must be realized in order to satisfy investors. The cost of debt capital is the return demanded by investors in the firm’s debt; this return largely is related to the interest the firm pays on its debt. Managers used to believe that equity capital had no cost if no dividends were paid; however, equity investors incur an opportunity cost in owning the equity of the firm and they demand a rate of return comparable to what they could earn by investing in securities of comparable risk.

The return required by debt holders is found by applying the CAPM:

rD = rF + betadebt (rM– rF)

The required rate of return on assets can be found using the CAPM:

rA = rF + betaunlevered (rM– rF)

Using the CAPM, a firm’s required return on equity is calculated as:

rE = rF + betalevered (rM– rF)

Under the Modigliani-Miller assumptions of constant cash flows and constant debt level, the required ROE is

rE = rA + (1-t)(rA– rD)(D/E)

where t is the corporate tax rate.

The overall cost of capital is a weighted-average of the cost of its equity capital and the after-tax cost of its debt capital:

WACC = rE (E/VL) + rD (1 – t)(D/VL)

Assuming perpetuities for the cash flows, the WACC can be calculated as:

WACC = rA (1– t(D/VL))

Neglecting taxes, the WACC would be equal to the expected ROA because the WACC is the return on a portfolio of all the firm’s equity and debt, and such a portfolio essentially has claim to all of the firm’s assets.

Estimating Beta

In order to use the CAPM to calculate ROA or ROE, one needs to estimate the asset (unlevered) beta or the equity (levered) beta of the firm. The beta that often is reported for a stock is the levered beta for the firm. When estimating a beta for a particular line of business, it is better to use the beta of an existing firm in that exact line of business (a pure play) rather than an average beta of several firms in similar lines of business. Expressing the levered beta, unlevered beta, and debt beta in terms of the covariance of their corresponding returns with that of the market, one can derive an expression relating the three betas. This relationship between the betas is:

betalevered = betaunlevered (1 + (1– t) D/E)– betadebt(1 – t) D/E

betaunlevered = (betalevered + betadebt(1 – t) D/E) / (1 + (1– t) D/E)

The debt beta can be estimated using CAPM given the risk-free rate, bond yield, and market risk premium.

Unlevered Free Cash Flows

To value the operations of the firm using a discounted cash flow model, the unlevered free cash flow is used. The unlevered free cash flow represents the cash generated by the firm’s operations and is the cash that is free to be paid to stock and bond holders after all other operating cash outlays have been performed.

Terminal Value

The value of the firm at the end of the last year for which unique cash flows are projected is known as the terminal value. The terminal value is important because it can represent 50% or more of the total value of the firm.

Three Discounted Cash Flow Methods for Valuing Levered Assets

APV (Adjusted Present Value) Method

The APV approach first performs the valuation under an unlevered all-equity

assumption, then adjusts this value for the effect of the interest tax shield:

VL = VU + PVITS

where VL = value if levered;

VU = value if financed 100% with equity;

PVITS = present value of interest tax shield.

The unlevered value is found by discounting the unlevered free cash flow at the required return on assets. The present value of the interest tax shield is found by discounting the interest tax shield savings at the required return on debt, rD.

The APV method is useful for valuing firms with a changing capital structure since the return on assets is independent of capital structure. For example, in a leveraged buyout, the debt to equity ratio gradually declines, so the required ROE and the WACC change as the lenders are repaid. However, when calculating the terminal value it may be appropriate to assume a stable capital structure, so in calculating the terminal value in a leveraged buyout situation the WACC method may be a better approach.

Flows to Equity Method

The flows to equity method sums the NPV of the cash flows to equity and debt.

Then,

VL = E + D

WACC Method

The WACC method discounts the unlevered free cash flow at the weighted average cost of capital to arrive at the levered value of the firm.

Cash Flows to Debt and Equity

When calculating the amount of cash flowing to debt and equity holders, it is not appropriate to use the unlevered free cash flows because these cash flows do not reflect the tax savings from the interest paid. Starting with the UFCF, add back the taxes saved to obtain the total amount of cash available to suppliers of capital.

Hurdle Price

At times a firm may wish to know at what price it would have to sell its product for a particular investment to have a positive NPV. To determine this price, express the operating cash flow in terms of price. Write out the expression for the NPV using the appropriate discount rate. For the longer operating period, one can calculate an annuity factor to multiply by the operating cash flow expression. Solve the expression for the cash flow that would result in an NPV of zero. Since the operating cash flow was written in terms of price, the price now can be found.

Debt Valuation

While debt may be issued at a particular face value and coupon rate, the debt value changes as market interest rates change. The debt can be valued by determining the present value of the cash flows, discounting the coupon payments at the market rate of interest for debt of the same duration and rating. The final period’s cash flow will include the final coupon payment and the face value of the bond.

Optimal Capital Structure

The total value of a firm is the sum of the value of its equity and the value of its debt. The optimal capital structure is the amount of debt and equity that maximizes the value of the firm.

Share Buyback

If a firm has extra cash on hand it may choose to buy back some of its outstanding shares. This decision can be based on information that the firm has and that the market does not have. Therefore, a share buyback could serve as a signal that the share price has potential to rise at above average rates.

Source: www.quickmba.com

Essential Vocabulary

1. historical cost – историческая стоимость (фактическая стоимость приобретения актива)

2. trademark n – торговая марка

3. accounting profit – учетная (бухгалтерская) прибыль

4. paid-in capital – авансированный (оплаченный) капитал

5. cash flow statement – отчет о движении денежных средств

6. operating activities – операционная деятельность

7. investing activities – инвестиционная деятельность

8. financing activities – финансовая деятельность

9. cash cycle – денежный цикл

10. payables n., pl – кредиторская задолженность

11. expensing of costs – вычитать расходы для целей налогообложения

12. income statement – отчет о прибылях и убытках

13. cost of goods sold (COGS) – себестоимость реализованной продукции

14. current assets – текущие (краткосрочные) активы

15. collection period – средний срок инкассации поступлений

16. inventory period – средний срок реализации запасов

17. payables period – средний срок покрытия кредиторской задолженности

18. financial ratio – финансовый коэффициент

19. short-term loan – краткосрочный кредит

20. term loan – срочный (с фиксированным сроком) кредит

21. revolving loan – возобновляемый (револьверный) кредит

22. evergreen loan – «вечнозеленый» кредит (регулярно возобновляемая кредитная линия без требования периодического полного погашения и с фиксированным общим сроком, после чего она может быть снова возобновлена)

23. unlevered a – безрычаговый (без привлечения заемных средств)

24. all-equity financing – финансирование только на основе собственного капитала

25. debt to equity (D/E) ratio – отношение заемного капитала к собственному

26. debt to value (D/V) ratio – отношение заемного капитала к ценности компании

27. Earnings before Interest and Tax (EBIT) – прибыль до уплаты процентов и налогов

28.risk premium – премия за риск

29. opportunity cost – цена возможности, упущенная прибыль

30. Capital Assets Pricing Model (CAPM) – модель оценки фиксированных активов

31. perpetuity n – бессрочное владение, пожизненная рента

32.pure play – «чистая игра» (компания, занимающаяся почти исключительно одним видом деятельности)

33. Adjusted Present Value (APV) – скорректированная приведенная ценность

34. leveraged buyout (LBO) – рычаговый выкуп (выкуп в кредит)

35. hurdle price – «пороговая» цена

36. annuity n – аннуитет, рента (регулярно поступающие равные платежи)

37. coupon rate – купонная ставка

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. Is the balance sheet method an appropriate way to value a company? 2. What is the essence of the valuation method based on cash flows? 3. Why is a company’s cash cycle important? 4. How can you calculate the number of days of assets and liabilities that a firm has on hand? 5. How can you determine firm value, equity value and debt value? 6. What are the risk premiums? 7. How can you calculate cost of capital? 8. How can you estimate different betas of a company? 9. What DCF methods can be used for valuing levered assets? 10. What is the hurdle price? 11. What is the optimal capital structure? 12. What are the implications of share buyback?

Exercise 2*. Find terms in the text that match definitions given below and make sentences of your own with each term.

1. anything owned by a business or individual that has commercial or exchange value

2. financial statement that presents a «snapshot» of what the business owns, what it owes, and what equity it has on a given date

3. indicates how quickly your customers pay you

4. a discipline dealing with the firm’s operations with regard to investing and financing

5. figure representing the cost of buying raw materials and producing finished goods

6. cash or other assets you expect to use in the operation of the firm within one year

7. distribution of earnings to shareholders

8. value of a firm’s raw materials, work in process, supplies used in operations, and finished goods

9. measures the firm’s use of borrowed funds versus those funds provided by the shareholders or owners

10. amount owing to creditors for goods and services on an open account

11. amount due from customers for merchandise or services purchased on an open account

12. a company’s purchase of its outstanding stock

13. a loan for a specified amount for a fixed period of time (usually 1 to 10 years) and often with a fixed periodic repayment

Exercise 3*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

Introduction into the DCF Analysis

The notion that money has…… is a basic concept of finance. The sooner funds are received, the sooner they can be put to work in other new…… If funds are received later rather than sooner, the recipient forgoes the……. that could have been earned in the meantime. Therefore, to analyze the economic worth of investment opportunities, managers must take into account the timing of…….. as well as their amounts.

The rate of interest represents the rate at which……. funds can be exchanged for…… funds, and vice versa. The interest rate is the rate of exchange over time and is the tool for…….. cash flows to account for differences in timing. Time affects cash flows through the……… of compound interest.

The future value of a sum of money equals its present value…….. forward through time at the appropriate interest rate. Similarly, the present value of a future sum is its future value……….. back to the present. The present value of a……… of payments is the sum of the present values of its separate elements. In the case of level streams (……….), the computation of present value can be simplified using present-value tables.

The general DCF……. expresses the value of an asset as the sum of all payments the asset will generate, discounted to their present value. Using DCF techniques, a complex……. of cash flows extending over many time periods can be reduced to a single figure that is equivalent in value. The present value of a stream of cash…….. can be compared to the……… required to generate it. Similarly, two or more……… investments (each of which generates a complex cash flow stream) can be reduced to present values and compared directly. DCF techniques greatly simplify the……… of complex cash flow patterns.

Terms:

stream, valuation, adjusting, annuities, outlay, time value, discounted, investments, inflows, future, model, interest, cash flows, alternative, present, mechanism, pattern, compounded

Exercise 4. You are a Harvard Business School graduate hired as CFO by a major Russian company. Its CEO has heard about DCF analysis and wants to use it for valuing investment projects of his company. You have to explain to him the advantages and disadvantages of this method. Invent a dialogue between these two individuals using the following briefing materials.

What are the Pluses and Minuses of the DCF Analysis?

Advantages

Arguably the best reason to like DCF is that it produces the closest thing to an intrinsic stock value. The alternatives to DCF are relative valuation measures, which use multiples to compare stocks within a sector. While relative valuation metrics such as P/E, EV/EBITDA and price to sales ratios are fairly simple to calculate, they aren’t very useful if an entire sector or market is over– or undervalued. A carefully designed DCF, by contrast, should help investors steer clear of companies that look inexpensive against expensive peers.

Unlike standard valuation tools such as the P/E ratio, DCF relies on free cash flows. For the most part, FCF is a trustworthy measure that cuts through much of the arbitrariness and «guesstimates» involved in reported earnings. Regardless of whether a cash outlay is counted as an expense or turned into an asset on the balance sheet, free cash flow tracks the money left over for investors.

Best of all, you can also apply the DCF model as a sanity check. Instead of trying to come up with a fair value stock price, you can plug the company’s current stock price into the DCF model and, working backwards, calculate how quickly the company would have to grow its cash flows to achieve the stock price. DCF analysis can help investors identify where the company’s value is coming from and whether or not its current share price is justified.

Disadvantages

Although DCF analysis certainly has its merits, it also has its share of shortcomings. For starters, the DCF model is only as good as its input assumptions. Depending on what you believe about how a company will operate and how the market will unfold, DCF valuations can fluctuate wildly. If your inputs – free cash flow forecasts, discount rates and perpetuity growth rates – are wide of the mark, the fair value generated for the company won’t be accurate, and it won’t be useful when assessing stock prices.

DCF works best when there is a high degree of confidence about future cash flows. But things can get tricky when a company’s operations lack what analysts call «visibility» – that is, when it’s difficult to predict sales and cost trends with much certainty. While forecasting cash flows a few years into the future is hard enough, pushing results into eternity (which is a necessary input) is nearly impossible. The investor’s ability to make good forward-looking projections is critical – and that’s why DCF is susceptible to error.

Valuations are particularly sensitive to assumptions about the perpetuity growth rates and discount rates. DCF analysis is a moving target that demands constant vigilance and modification.

Also, the model is not suited to short-term investing as DCF focuses on long-term value. A well-crafted DCF may help you avoid buying into a bubble, but it may also make you miss short-term share price run-ups that can be profitable. Moreover, focusing too much on the DCF may cause you to overlook unusual opportunities. For example, Microsoft seemed very expensive back in 1995, but its ability to dominate the software market made it an industry powerhouse and an investor’s dream soon after.

DCF is a rigorous valuation approach that can focus your mind on the right issues, help you see the risk and help you separate winning stocks from losers. But bear in mind that while the DCF technique can help reduce uncertainty, it won’t make it disappear.

Source: investopedia.com

Exercise 5. Translate into English.

Оценка денежного потока инвестиционного проекта

От того, насколько точно рассчитан экономический эффект инвестиционного проекта, во многом зависит будущий успех компании. При этом одной из самых сложных задач является правильная оценка ожидаемого денежного потока. Если его рассчитать неправильно, то любой метод оценки инвестиционного проекта даст неверный результат, из-за чего эффективный проект может быть отвергнут как убыточный, а экономически невыгодный принят за сверхприбыльный. Именно поэтому важно грамотно составить план денежного потока компании.

Для оценки эффективности инвестиционных проектов, как правило, применяются стандартные методы расчета: чистой приведенной (дисконтированной) стоимости – NPV (net present value), срока окупаемости – PB (payback period), индекса рентабельности – PI (profitability index) и внутренней нормы доходности – IRR (internal rate of return). Названные показатели вычисляются на основе плана денежного потока инвестиционного проекта.

Показатели эффективности инвестиционных проектов

Наиболее надежным и часто используемым является метод чистой приведенной стоимости (NPV). Он показывает разницу между суммой всех дисконтированных денежных потоков и начальными инвестициями. Согласно теории проект принимается, если значение NPV положительное, и отвергается, если NPV отрицательное. Этот показатель рассчитывается следующим образом:

где r – ставка дисконтирования;

I – начальные инвестиции;

Pk – денежные потоки за период с 1 по n-й год.

Другим классическим методом оценки эффективности инвестиций является внутренняя норма доходности (IRR). IRR – это значение ставки дисконтирования, при котором все денежные расходы по проекту равны всем денежным доходам. Иначе говоря, IRR = r, при котором NPV = 0.

Экономический смысл этого показателя заключается в следующем. IRR показывает ту норму доходности инвестиций, при которой для инвестора не имеет значения – инвестировать средства в проект или нет. Согласно теории финансов проект следует принимать только в том случае, если его IRR выше стоимости капитала. Расчет индекса рентабельности (PI) используется, когда необходимо выбрать один проект из ряда альтернативных, имеющих примерно одинаковое значение NPV. Индекс рентабельности определяется по формуле:

Самый популярный метод оценки инвестиций – срок окупаемости (PB). Он показывает, через сколько лет окупятся затраты на проект: PB = N, где N – число лет, при котором:

Иногда сроки окупаемости рассчитываются с учетом временной стоимости капитала, то есть с использованием дисконтирования. В этом случае: PB = N, где N – число лет, при котором:

Под денежным потоком (cash flow) инвестиционного проекта понимают поступления и выплаты денежных средств, связанные исключительно с реализацией этого проекта. К денежным потокам проекта не относится движение денежных средств, возникающее в результате текущей деятельности предприятия.

Денежный поток проекта всегда разбивается по временным периодам (месяцам, кварталам, годам). При этом все платежи и поступления денежных средств включаются в денежный поток того периода, когда они были зачислены на денежные счета или списаны с них, независимо от того, к какому периоду относятся соответствующие затраты или доходы.

Информация о денежных потоках по проекту обычно представляется в виде плана, который называют прогнозным отчетом о движении денежных средств. На основе этого плана, который составляется за каждый период отдельно, и формируется денежный поток всего инвестиционного проекта.

План денежного потока, или прогнозный отчет о движении денежных средств, состоит из трех частей: денежные потоки от операционной (текущей) деятельности предприятия, от инвестиционной деятельности и связанные с финансовой деятельностью.

В первой части отражаются поступления денежных средств от реализации товаров, работ и услуг, а также авансов от покупателей и заказчиков. В качестве оттока денежных средств показываются платежи за сырье, материалы, коммунальные платежи, выплаты заработной платы, уплаченные налоги и сборы и т. д.

Во второй части показываются денежные потоки, связанные с приобретением и продажей имущества долгосрочного пользования, то есть основных средств и нематериальных активов.

Финансовая деятельность предполагает притоки и оттоки денежных средств по кредитам, займам, эмиссии ценных бумаг и т. д.

Чистый денежный поток – это сумма денежных потоков от операционной, инвестиционной и финансовой деятельности. Другими словами, это разница между суммой всех поступлений денежных средств и суммой всех платежей за один и тот же период. Именно чистые денежные потоки различных периодов дисконтируются при оценке эффективности проекта.

Источник: «Финансовый директор», 2002, № 4; Сокольникова Ирина,

вице-президент Института инвестиционного анализа (отрывок)

Lesson 37
Raising Credit

Read and translate the text and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

The Credit Process: A Guide For Small Business Owners

Introduction

Some say owning a home is the American dream. Millions of small business owners will argue, however, that owning one’s own business is really the American dream. But while it offers rewards, owning a business is not easy. Entrepreneurship has its problems, and a critical – and sometimes fatal – one for small businesses can be the lack of access to the financial resources to keep the dream going.

This text highlights information that prospective first-time borrowers need to know about the credit process before they apply for a loan.

Sources and Types of Funding

Where to Borrow.

Getting credit for a business can be a dilemma because until you’ve developed a good track record with business credit, many commercial banks and other traditional lenders will be reluctant to extend credit to you.

In order to identify the type of financial institution most likely to lend to your business, it’s helpful to pinpoint which of the four early stages of development your business is in.

Stages of a Developing Business.

– Stage one businesses are start-ups.

– Stage two businesses have business plans and product samples but no revenues.

– Stage three businesses have full business plans and pilot programs in place.

– Stage four businesses have been in operation for some time and have documented revenues and expenses.

Lenders suggest that rather than approaching a bank, owners of businesses in stages one and two should seek financing from informal investors. Such sources of funding may include friends or relatives, partners, local development corporations, state and local governments offering low-interest micro loans, private foundations offering program-related investments, credit unions featuring small business lending, and universities with targeted R&D funds.

Lenders say that businesses in stage four, and some in stage three, are sufficiently developed to approach a commercial bank or another traditional lender for a loan. If you intend to approach a commercial bank, lenders suggest that you first submit an application to a bank with which you have an established relationship. If you do not have an established relationship with a bank, lenders recommend that you ask an experienced accountant or lawyer to contact a bank and present your proposal.

Also, keep in mind that you must choose a legal designation – sole proprietorship, partnership, or corporation – and execute the necessary documentation for your small business before approaching a bank or another lender.

Reason to Borrow.

There are three major reasons why businesses borrow; the first and most common reason is to purchase assets. A loan to acquire assets could be for buying short-term, or current, assets – such as inventory – and would be repaid once the new inventory is converted into cash as it is sold to customers. Or, the funds could be for the addition of long-term, or fixed, assets, such as equipment.

The second reason is to replace other types of credit. For example, if your business is already up and running, it may be time to take out a bank loan to repay the money you borrowed from a relative. Or, you may wish to use the funds to pay suppliers more promptly to get a discount on the price of the merchandise.

The third reason is to replace equity. If you wish to buy a partner’s share in your business but you don’t have the cash to do it, you may consider borrowing.

Loan Types.

The purpose of your loan is critical in determining the type of loan you request. You also should make sure that the timing of the repayment schedule on your loan matches the incoming cash flow you will use to make the payments.

There are a number of loan types available to commercial borrowers, including lines of credit, seasonal commercial loans, installment loans, collateralized loans (which are secured with assets), credit card advances, and term loans.

Regardless of the type, most loans have the following features.

Common Loan Features.

– Loans are long term or short term.

– Interest rates vary depending on the term, type, size, and risk of the loan.

– Repayment may be a lump sum or on a monthly or quarterly schedule.

– Payments may be delayed until the funds help your business generate cash flow.

– The loan may be committed, meaning the bank agrees to lend to you under certain terms as you need funds without requiring you to re-apply each time.

– Some loans require that you maintain compensating balance levels in a deposit account.

Loan Agreements.

You also should be aware that the lender will expect you to agree to certain performance standards and restrictions in order to ensure that your business can repay the loan. These restrictions, known as covenants and warranties, commonly include the following:

– Maintenance of accurate records and financial statements

– Limits on total debt

– Restrictions on dividends or other payments to owners and/or investors

– Restrictions on additional capital expenditures

– Restrictions on sale of fixed assets

– Performance standards on financial ratios

– Current tax and insurance payments

The First Step: Preparing Your Business Plan and Loan Request.

When you apply for a business loan, you will need to provide certain information about yourself and your business in the form of a business plan. A business plan can act as an ongoing management guide to help you establish production goals and measure actual performance. Your business plan can help demonstrate to a prospective lender that you have the knowledge, managerial competence, and technical capability to run a successful business.

The Business Plan.

The business plan should include the following sections:

Title page.

Executive summary.

Company description.

Market analysis.

Products and services.

Operations.

Marketing plan.

Ownership.

Management and personnel.

Funds required and expected use.

Financial statements and projections.

Appendices/exhibits.

(See samples of detailed business plan in Exercise 4.).

What the Lender Will Review.

Credit Analysis.

Regardless of where you seek funding – from a bank, a local development corporation, or a relative – a prospective lender will review your creditworthiness. A complete and thoroughly documented loan request (including a business plan) will help the lender understand you and your business. The basic components of credit analysis, the «Five C’s», are described below to help you understand what the lender will look for.

The «Five C’s» of Credit Analysis.

Capacity to repayis the most critical of the five factors. The prospective lender will want to know exactly how you intend to repay the loan. The lender will consider the cash flow from the business, the timing of the repayment, and the probability of successful repayment of the loan. Credit history is considered an indicator of future payment performance. Prospective lenders also will want to know about your contingent sources of repayment.

Capitalis the money you personally have invested in the business and is an indication of how much you have at risk should the business fail. Prospective lenders and investors will expect you to have contributed from your own assets and to have undertaken personal financial risk to establish the business before asking them to commit any funding .

Collateral or guarantees are additional forms of security you can provide the lender. Giving a lender collateral means that you pledge an asset you own, such as your home, to the lender with the agreement that it will be the repayment source in case you can’t repay the loan. A guarantee, on the other hand, is just that – someone else signs a guarantee document promising to repay the loan if you can’t. Some lenders may require such a guarantee in addition to collateral as security for a loan.

Conditions focus on the intended purpose of the loan. Will the money be used for working capital, additional equipment, or inventory? The lender also will consider the local economic climate and conditions both within your industry and in other industries that could affect your business.

Character is the general impression you make on the potential lender or investor. The lender will form a subjective opinion as to whether or not you are sufficiently trustworthy to repay the loan or generate a return on funds invested in your company. Your educational background and experience in business and in your industry will be reviewed. The quality of your references and the background and experience levels of your employees also will be taken into consideration.

Financial Analysis

In addition to the «Five C’s», a prospective lender will use four primary financial statements to make a credit decision.

A Personal Financial Statement.

Indicates your net worth. Each partner or stockholder owning a substantial percentage (for example, 20% or more) of the business should submit one. A personal financial statement is important to the lender, particularly if you have never received financing for your business before, because it gives the lender evidence of personal assets you could pledge to secure a loan.

A Balance Sheet.

Provides you with a snapshot of your business at a specific time, such as the end of the year. It keeps track of your company’s assets, or what the company owns (including its cash), and the company’s debts, or liabilities (generally loans from others). It also shows the capital, or equity, put into the business.

A Profit and Loss Statement.

Shows the profit or loss for the year. The profit and loss statement, also called the income statement, takes the sales for the business, subtracts the cost of goods sold, then subtracts other expenses.

A Statement of Cash Flows.

Presents the sources of cash in your business – from net income, new capital, or loan proceeds – versus uses of the cash, over a specified period of time.

It’s at this stage that you will appreciate having an effective accounting system. Without this system, you won’t know if you are profitable or not, let alone if you are liquid enough to pay for the next order of merchandise. A good system also will help you track your company’s growth and anticipate future cash needs.

Ratio Analysis.

Another tool the lender will use is financial ratio analysis. Ratios permit review of a company’s current financial performance versus that of previous years. An analysis of a company’s financial performance considers the status, changes, and relationships of critical components of a company’s health.

The lender also may use financial ratio analysis to consider how a company is doing when compared to another company. A limitation of such comparative analysis is that different industries are driven by different factors. As a result, the financial ratios of a manufacturer and retailer can be quite different even though both companies may be similarly successful.

Lenders are trained to appreciate both the benefits and limitations of ratio analysis and to consider financial results in the context of the company’s «peer group» of similar companies within its industry.

The following section presents some widely used ratios from four financial ratio categories: profitability, liquidity, leverage, and turnover. Your lender.’s analysis also may include ratios specific to your particular industry.

Profitability

Profit is the compensation an entrepreneur receives for the assumption of risk in a business venture. The profitable business must cover its overhead expenses and generate profits for its owner out of its «after-product-costs» cash.

Gross Profit Margin

One commonly used measure of profitability is gross profit, which is your sales minus your product costs. In ratio form, it is called the gross profit margin.

Operating Profit Margin

Another measure of your profitability is the operating profit margin. This is the core cash flow source that is expected to grow year to year as your business grows, and it excludes interest expense, taxes, and «extraordinary items» such as the sale of property or other assets. Higher profitability from one year to the next is generally considered a good sign for a company.

Liquidity.

How much cash does your business have on hand for immediate use?

Quick Ratio

The quick ratio (or acid test) shows what assets your business can immediately convert to cash, such as the business checking account and money market accounts.

Current Ratio

The current ratio is a broader indication of liquidity because it includes inventory. For purposes of showing your immediate access to cash, many lenders find it less useful than the quick ratio. In general, lenders look for your current assets to exceed your current liabilities.

Leverage.

The leverage ratios measure the company’s use of borrowed funds in relation to the amount of funds provided by the shareholders or owners. These ratios tell the lender how much money you have borrowed versus what money you and other owners have put into your company. This is important because borrowed money carries interest costs and your business must generate sufficient cash flow to cover the interest and principal amounts due to the lender. Generally speaking, companies with higher debt levels will have higher interest costs to cover each month, so low to moderate leverage is nearly always viewed more favorably by prospective lenders.

Debt Ratio

The most common leverage ratio is called, simply, the debt ratio: total liabilities divided by total liabilities plus capital.

Turnover.

The turnover ratios focus on the operating cycle of your business by examining its cash flow. They show the amount of time it takes for cash to move through the accounts receivable, inventory account, and accounts payable in your business.

It is important to know how many days it takes your company to purchase inventory, pay for it, sell it, and collect the cash for the sales. Credit sales may not actually produce cash for 30 to 60 days. If you don’t understand this cycle you can find that you have to pay for new supplies before your customers have paid you.

Gaining an understanding of the cash flow of your business is the most important financial planning tool you have. An examination of the turnover ratios can help you to understand the operating cycle in your business.

The three turnover ratios are the collection period ratio, the days to sell inventory ratio, and the days purchases in accounts payable ratio.

Collection Period Ratio

The collection period ratio indicates how quickly you collect the cash your customers owe you. The earlier you collect it, the sooner you can put it to work; so the lower the number, the better.

Days to Sell Inventory Ratio

Along the same lines is the second turnover ratio, the days to sell inventory ratio. The days to sell inventory ratio tells how efficient you are at matching your purchases to your sales. Low inventory days indicate that you’ve accurately forecasted the demand for your product. That way excess inventory isn’t accumulating on your shelves and adding to costs.

Days Purchases in Accounts Payable Ratio

The days purchases in accounts payable ratio is the third turnover ratio. This ratio measures how quickly you pay your suppliers for inventory purchased. Generally speaking, it is advantageous for small businesses to pay for products promptly so they can take advantage of price discounts.

Pro Forma Financial Statements and Financial Projections.

Pro forma financial statements are the entrepreneur’s best guess about what next year will look like for the business. These tools will help you anticipate whether next year’s cash flow will be sufficient to cover all your costs, and if not, how much money you will need to borrow.

For a longer horizon, financial projections permit you to make estimates about future sales levels, expansion costs, or general business conditions and see how such conditions would affect your company’s financial results in the years to come.

The preparation of pro formas and projections is a complex exercise that requires a sound knowledge of financial accounting. The pro forma statements show how an expected sales increase will change the company’s profit and loss statement and balance sheet forecast for next year.

Source: www.newyorkfed.org

Essential Vocabulary

1. pilot program – пилотная программа

2. credit union – кредитный союз

3. targeted funds – целевые средства

4. application n – заявка, заявление

applicant n– заявитель

5. sole proprietorship – единоличное владение

6. short-term (current) assets – текущие (краткосрочные) активы

7. long-term (fixed) assets – долгосрочные (внеоборотные) активы

8. seasonal commercial loan – сезонный коммерческий кредит

9. installment loan – кредит с погашением в рассрочку

10. collateralized loan – обеспеченный кредит

11. credit card advance – аванс по кредитной карте

12. lump sum – единая сумма

13. compensating balance – компенсационный остаток

14. deposit account (DA) – депозитный счет

15. executive summary – резюме

16. five Cs (capacity to repay, capital, collateral, conditions, character) – пять аспектов оценки при предоставлении кредита

17. pledge n – залог, обеспечение, заклад; дар; обет; обещание

pledge v – закладывать, связывать обещанием, заверять

18. reference n – ссылка; справочник; упоминание; рекомендация; отношение; полномочие

19. net worth – чистая ценность

20. profit and loss statement (P&L) – отчет о прибылях и убытках

21. ratio analysis – анализ коэффициентов

22. gross profit margin – маржа валовой прибыли

23. operating profit margin – маржа операционной прибыли

24. extraordinary items – экстраординарные события (чрезвычайные обстоятельства)

25. quick ratio (acid test ratio) – коэффициент быстрой ликвидности

26. checking account – чековый (текущий) счет

27. current ratio – коэффициент текущей ликвидности

28. debt ratio – отношение заемного капитала к собственному

29. turnover ratio – коэффициент оборачиваемости

30. collection period ratio – средний срок инкассации поступлений

31. days to sell inventory ratio – средний срок продажи запасов

32. days purchases in accounts payable ratio – средний срок оплаты поставщиков

33. pro forma – гипотетический

Exercise 1*. Find synonyms to the following terms and make sentences of your own using these synonyms.

quick ratio; long-term assets; preferred stock; leverage; margin trading; face value; inventory; all-equity financed firm; income statement; strike price

Exercise 2. Make a dialogue between an entrepreneur who needs to raise funds for his business and a commercial banker. As a banker, you should decide whether you are going to extend credit to this business and explain why you consider reasons for viewing this enterprise an attractive credit opportunity.

Exercise 3. Write a loan application for your business. Invent a bank’s response denying a loan and supplying reasons for a denial.

Exercise 4. Write a business plan for your company using the following outline.

Sample Business Plan

Title Page

Name of Company, Date, Contact Information, etc.

Table of Contents

Executive Summary

Business Concept

Company

Market Potential

Management Team

Distinct Competencies

Required Funding and its Use

Exit Strategy

Main Sections

I. Company Description

Mission Statement

Summary of Activity to Date

Current Stage of Development

Competencies

Product or Service

Description

Benefits to Customer

Differences from Current Offerings

Objectives

Keys to Success

Location and Facilities

II. Industry Analysis

Entry Barriers

Supply and Distribution

Technological Factors

Seasonality

Economic Influences

Regulatory Issues

III. Market Analysis

Definition of Overall Market

Market Size and Growth

Market Trends

Market Segments

Targeted Segments

Customer Characteristics

Customer Needs

Purchasing Decision Process

Product Positioning

IV. Competition

Profiles of Primary Competitors

Competitors’ Products/Services & Market Share

Competitive Evaluation of Product

Distinct Competitive Advantage

Competitive Weaknesses

Future Competitors

V. Marketing and Sales

Products Offered

Pricing

Distribution

Promotion

Advertising and Publicity

Trade Shows

Partnerships

Discounts and Incentives

Sales Force

Sales Forecasts

VI. Operations

Product Development

Development Team

Development Costs

Development Risks

Manufacturing (if applicable)

Production Processes

Production Equipment

Quality Assurance

Administration

Key Suppliers

Product / Service Delivery

Customer Service and Support

Human Resource Plan

Facilities

VII. Management and Organization

Management Team

Open Positions

Board of Directors

Key Personnel

Organizational Chart

VIII. Capitalization and Structure

Legal Structure of Company

Present Equity Positions

Deal Structure

Exit Strategy

IX. Development and Milestones

Milestones May Include Some or All of the Following:

Financing Commitments

Product Development Milestones

Prototype

Testing

Launch

Signing of Significant Contracts

Achievment of Break-even Performance

Expansion

Additional Funding

Any Other Significant Milestones

X. Risks and Contingencies

Some Common Risks Include:

Increased Competition

Loss of a Key Employee

Suppliers’ Failure to Meet Deadlines

Regulatory Changes

Change in Business Conditions

XI. Financial Projections

Assumptions (Start Date, Commissions, Tax Rates, Average Inventory, Sales

Forecasts, etc.)

Financial Statements (Balance Sheet, Income Statement, Cash Flow Statement)

Break Even Analysis

Key Ratio Projections (Quick Ratio, Current Ratio, D/E, D/A, ROE, ROA, Working

Capital)

Financial Resources

Financial Strategy

XII. Summary and Conclusions

Lesson 38
Business Law

Read and translate the texts and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

Business Law

Business law is the body of rules, whether by convention, agreement, or national or international legislation, governing the dealings between persons in commercial matters.

Business law falls into two distinctive areas: (1) the regulation of commercial entities by the laws of company, partnership, agency, and bankruptcy and (2) the regulation of commercial transactions by the laws of contract and related fields.

In civil law countries, company law consists of statute law; in common law countries it consists partly of the ordinary rules of common law and equity and partly statute law. Two fundamental legal concepts underlie the whole of company law: the concept of legal personality and the theory of limited liability. Nearly all statutory rules are intended to protect either creditors or investors.

There are various forms of legal business entities ranging from the sole proprietor, who alone bears the risk and responsibility of running a business, taking the profits, but as such not forming any association in law and thus not regulated by special rules of law, to the registered company with limited liability and to multinational corporations. In a partnership, members «associate,» forming collectively an association in which they all participate in management and sharing profits, bearing the liability for the firm’s debts and being sued jointly and severally in relation to the firm’s contracts or tortious acts. All partners are agents for each other and as such are in a fiduciary relationship with one another. An agent is a person who is employed to bring his principal into contractual relations with third parties.

It is inevitable that in certain circumstances business entities might be unable to perform their financial obligations. With the development of the laws surrounding commercial enterprises, a body of rules developed relating to bankruptcy when a person or company is insolvent (i.e., unable to pay debts as and when they fall due), either he or his creditors may petition the court to take over the administration of his estate and its distribution among creditors. Three principles emerge: to secure fair and equal distribution of available property among the creditors, to free the debtor from his debts, and to enquire into the reasons for his insolvency.

Business law touches everyday lives through every contractual dealing undertaken. A contract, usually in the form of a commercial bargain involving some form of exchange of goods or services for a price, is a legally binding agreement made by two or more persons, enforceable by the courts. As such they may be written or oral, and to be binding the following must exist: an offer and unqualified acceptance thereof, intention to create legal relations, valuable consideration, and genuine consent (i.e., an absence of fraud). The terms must be legal, certain, and possible of performance.

Contractual relations, as the cornerstone of all commercial transactions, have resulted in the development of specific bodies of law within the scope of business law regulating (1) sale of goods, i.e., implied terms and conditions, the effects of performance, and breach of such contracts and remedies available to the parties; (2) the carriage of goods, including both national and international rules governing insurance, bills of lading, charter parties, and arbitrations; (3) consumer credit agreements; and (4) labour relations determining contractual rights and obligations between employers and employees and the regulation of trade unions.

Business law, on national and international levels, is continually evolving with new areas of law developing in relation to consumer protection, competition, and computers.

Source: Encyclopedia Britannica

The American Legal System

Sources of Law.

Constitutional Law is based on a formal document that defines broad powers. Federal constitutional law originates from the U.S. constitution. State constitutional law originates from the individual state constitutions.

Statutes and Ordinances are legislation passed on the federal, state, or local levels.

Common Law is based on the concept of precedence – on how the courts have interpreted the law. Under common law, the facts of a particular case are determined and compared to previous cases having similar facts in order to reach a decision by analogy. Common law applies mostly at the state level. It originated in the 13th century when royal judges began recording their decisions and the reasoning behind their decisions.

Administrative Law – federal, state and local level. Administrative law is made by administrative agencies that define the intent of the legislative body that passed the law.

The sources of law have both vertical and horizontal dimensions. Vertical dimensions include federal authority, state authority, and concurrent authority. Federalism refers to this form of government, in which there is national and local authority. Federal authority covers laws related to patents, pensions and profit sharing, and labor issues. State authority covers business association, contracts, and trade secrets. Concurrent authority covers security law, tax law and employment law. Note that employment law refers to non-union relationships; labor law refers to union relationships.

The horizontal dimension is related to the separation of power between the executive branch, which creates administrative law, the legislative branch, which creates statutes, and the judicial branch, which creates common law. The judicial system in the U.S. has a pyramid structure consisting of fewer higher level courts and more lower level courts:

Actually, there are two pyramid structures – one for federal courts and one for state courts. State courts may use different terminology; for example, trial courts may be called courts of common plea, appellate courts may be called superior courts or commonwealth courts.

Classification of Law.

Substantive law vs. procedural law: Substantive law creates, defines, and regulates legal rights and obligations. Procedural law defines the rules that are used to enforce substantive law.

Common law vs. statutory law: Common law is defined by judges. Statutory law is passed by legislatures. For example, the Securities Act of 1933 is statutory law.

Criminal law vs. civil law: Criminal law is between private parties and society. Civil law is between private parties only.

Jurisdiction.

Jurisdiction is the power of a court to hear a particular case. In order for a court to have jurisdiction, it must have both subject matter jurisdiction (the power to hear the type of claim being asserted) and personal jurisdiction (power over the person).

Subject Matter Jurisdiction

Article III of the U.S. constitution states that federal courts have only certain types of subject matter jurisdiction. To satisfy subject matter jurisdiction, a federal court must have either:

1. Federal question jurisdiction – federal courts have federal question jurisdiction in cases involving the federal constitution, federal statutes, or federal treaties.

Or

2. Diversity jurisdiction – diversity jurisdiction requires both a) $ 75,000 or more at issue, and b) the parties must be residents of different states. Diversity jurisdiction applies for example to a case in which a traveler passing through a different state from his/her home state is accused of a serious offense, and in which the plaintiff, attorneys, and judge may all be close friends.

Or

3. suit by or against the U.S. government.

Or

4. Miscellaneous – certain types of cases such as those related to patents, bankruptcy, admiralty (maritime cases), trademarks and copyrights, etc. Items 1) and 2) can be tried in either state or federal courts (concurrent state/federal jurisdiction). Items 3) and 4) may be heard only by federal courts.

Personal Jurisdiction.

Types of personal jurisdiction:

1. In personam – court has power over a particular person – in personam applies if minimum contact is established. For non-residents of a state, a state court may still have jurisdiction if the person travels regularly to the state on business or has a post office box in the state. Each state has its own definition of what constitutes doing business in the state, as determined by common law.

2. In Rem – a court has power if a particular piece of property is in the state.

3. Consent – when a contract specifies in which state any disputes are settled. The contract can specify a third state in which neither party does business.

Just because a case is heard by a particular state court does not mean that that state’s laws apply. The states whose laws are used can be specified in the contract. One state’s court can hear a case under another state’s laws.

Lifecycle of a Lawsuit.

In the beginning phase of a lawsuit, there is a complaint, followed by the defendant’s answer in which he or she tries to counter everything in the claim. The defendant then may file a counterclaim. Counterclaims are lawsuits within a lawsuit in which the defendant files a claim against the plaintiff. There then may be a preliminary motion, of which the outcome can be dismissed due to no legal claim based on reading the complaint, or a summary judgment in which a decision can be based on the facts of the case that are not in dispute.

The middle phase of a lawsuit is the discovery phase in which each side attempts to determine how strong their case is. The discovery phase consists of interrogations, depositions and admissions. By this point, most cases are settled.

The end phase of a lawsuit is the trial, beginning with a pre-trial conference in which the parties attempt to settle in front of a judge without going to court. The trial then proceeds with the evidence and then a judgment and possibly a post-judgment. The post-judgment may be that a new trial is necessary, such as in cases of mistrial.

The defendant usually has the right to one appeal within a certain period of time. An appeal is filed with the appellate court, there are briefs, oral arguments, and then a decision.

The judgment is enforced by first obtaining an execution that freezes the defendant’s assets. The defendant is served and the assets are levied. The defendant, however, may choose to file for bankruptcy protection, in which case all creditors are stopped, including court judgments.

Remedies.

There are two types of remedies: legal and equitable. Legal remedies are money-based and seek to financially compensate one for the damage that has occurred. Equitable remedies require a specific performance. Examples of equitable remedies are injunctions, restitution and reformation. In cases when damages are difficult to quantify, equitable remedies may be more appropriate.

Source: www.quickmba.com

Essential Vocabulary

1. business law – право, регулирующее область деловых отношений

2. law of contract – договорное право; договорно-обязательственное право

3. civil law – римское право; внутригосударственное право (в отличие от международного права); гражданское право; позитивное право (в отличие от естественного права)

4. statute (statutory) law – статутное право; право, выраженное в законодательных актах

5. common law – общее право; англо-саксонское право

6. legal personality – правосубъектность

7. sue v – преследовать по суду; предъявлять иск или обвинение

8. tort n – деликт, гражданское правонарушение

tortious a – деликтный

9. estate n — имущество, собственность; вещно-правовой титул; сословие

10. fraud n – обман, мошенничество

fraudulent a – обманный, мошеннический

11. remedy n – средство судебной защиты

12. carriage n – перевозка; проведение, принятие голосованием

carrier n – перевозчик, фрахтовщик

13. bill of lading – коносамент

14. constitutional law – конституционное право, государственное право; конституционный закон, основной закон

15. statute n – статут (международный коллективный акт конституционного характера; закон, законодательный акт; устав)

statutory a – действующий в силу закона, основанный на законе, предусмотренный законом, статутный, законный

16. ordinance n – указ, декрет

17. precedence n – старшинство, ранг, приоритет, прецедент

precedent n – прецедент

18. judge n — судья

19. administrative law – административное право

20. labour law – трудовое право

21. employment law – трудовое право

22. Supreme Court – Верховный суд

23. Appellate (Appeal(s)) Court – апелляционный суд

24. Trial Court – суд первой инстанции

25. plea n – заявление оснований иска или обвинения или оснований защиты против иска или обвинения; аргумент; заявление, сделанное ответчиком или защитой или от имени ответчика или защиты; извинение, оправдание; иск

26. commonwealth court – суд штата (в США)

27. substantive law – материальное право

28. procedural law – процессуальное право

29. legislature n – законодательная власть, законодательный орган

30. criminal law – уголовное право

31. subject matter jurisdiction – предметная подсудность

32. personal jurisdiction – персональная юрисдикция

33. federal question jurisdiction – федеральная юрисдикция; практика федеральных судов (амер.)

34. offense n – посягательство; правонарушение; преступление

offender n – правонарушитель, преступник

offend v – оскорблять; нарушать, посягать

35. plaintiff n – истец

36. attorney n – атторней, уполномоченный, доверенный; поверенный, юрист, адвокат; прокурор

37. suit n – иск, преследование по суду, судебное дело, судебный процесс, судопроизводство

38. miscellaneous a – разнообразный, сборный

39. In personam – в отношении конкретного лица; носящий обязательственный характер (лат.)

40. In Rem – в отношении самой вещи; вещный, абсолютный (лат.)

41. consent n – совпадение воль, согласие

consent v – давать согласие, соглашаться

42. lawsuit n – судебное дело, иск, тяжба, правовой спор, судебное разбирательство, судебный процесс

43. defendant n – ответчик; обвиняемый; подсудимый

defense n – оборона; защита; обстоятельство, освобождающее от ответственности

defend v – обороняться, защищаться; защищать на суде, выступать защитником; возражать; запрещать

44. counterclaim n – встречное требование, встречный иск

45. motion n – предложение; ходатайство (в суде)

46. judgment n – судебное решение, приговор; суждение, мнение, оценка

47. discovery n – открытие; раскрытие, представление сведений, документов; обнаружение (нового факта, преступления)

48. deposition n – письменное показание под присягой; приобщение к материалам дела; приобщенное к материалам дела доказательство; низложение, свержение

49. pre-trial a – досудебный

50. post-judgment a – послесудебный

51. mistrial n – неправильное судебное разбирательство

52. brief n – (зд.) сводка, резюме; краткое письменное изложение дела; записка по делу, представляемая адвокатом в апелляционный суд

brief v – составлять сводку, резюмировать; поручать ведение дела адвокату; давать инструкции адвокату

53. freeze v – замораживать, блокировать, устанавливать контроль, вводить запрет

54. equitable а – справедливый; основанный на праве справедливости, регулируемый правом справедливости

55. injunction n – судебный запрет; запретительная норма

56. restitution n – восстановление первоначального положения

57. reformation n – внесение исправления

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. What does business law regulate? 2. What are the two key areas of business law? 3. What are the fundamental legal concepts that underlie the company law? 4. What are the most common forms of legal business entities? 5. What are the key ideas of rules regulating bankruptcy? 6. What are the specifics of contracts and contractual relations? 7. What new aspects of business law are developing now? 8. What are the sources of law in the United States? 9. What are the specifics of vertical and horizontal dimensions of sources of law? 10. How is the U.S. law classified? 11. What are the different jurisdictions that exist in the U.S.? 12. How does a lawsuit normally evolve?

Exercise 2*. Which of the following statements are not correct and why?

1. In civil law countries, company law consists of statute law; in common law countries it consists partly of the ordinary rules of common law and equity and partly statute law. 2. Nearly all statutory rules are intended to protect either borrowers or taxpayers. 3. An agent is a person who is employed to bring his principal into contractual relations with third parties. 4. There are two principles that emerge in bankruptcy proceedings: to free the debtor from his debts, and to enquire into the reasons for his insolvency. 5. A contract is a legally binding agreement made by two or more persons, enforceable by the courts. 6. Business law, on national and international levels, is continually evolving with new areas of law developing in relation to consumer protection, competition, and computers. 7. Administrative law is made by local authorities that define the intent of the legislative body that passed the law. 8. In the United States, federal authority covers business association, contracts, and trade secrets. 9. In order for a court to have jurisdiction, it must have both subject matter jurisdiction and personal jurisdiction.

Exercise 3*. Find terms in the text that match definitions given below and make sentences of your own with each term.

1. That division of law of a particular state, city, or country dealing with the interpretation and preservation of private and civil rights: the system of jurisprudence which juridical principles have been derived from the Roman Law and which forms the basis of the law of European countries.

2. A wrong, other than a breach of contract, such as the law requires compensation for in damages.

3. Deceit or trickery deliberately practiced in order to gain some advantage dishonestly.

4. The legal means of enforcing a right, or preventing or redressing a wrong.

5. A public officer authorized to hear and determine causes in a court of law.

6. The answer of a defendant to the plaintiff’s declaration; an answer admitting the truth of the charges, but expressing special reasons or evidence for having the case dismissed or delayed.

7. A legal agent who represents a client in legal affairs.

8. An action or a prosecution of a claim in a court of justice.

9. To prohibit the liquidation, collection, or use of assets, loans, or funds by law.

Exercise 4*. Fill in the blanks using terms given below.

Choosing your Business Structure

One of the first decisions that you will have to make as a business ….. is how the company should be structured. This decision will have long-term implications, so consult with an accountant and …… to help you select the form of ownership that is right for you. In making a choice, you will want to take into account the following:

Your ……. regarding the size and nature of your business.

The level of ……. you wish to have.

The level of ……. you are willing to deal with.

The business' vulnerability to ………

……. implications of the different ownership structures.

Expected profit (or ……) of the business.

Whether or not you need to ……. earnings into the business.

Your need for access to ……. out of the business for yourself.

Sole Proprietorships

The vast majority of …… businesses start out as sole proprietorships. These firms are owned by one person, usually the individual who has day-to-day ……… for running the business. Sole proprietors own all the ……. of the business and the profits generated by it. They also assume complete responsibility for any of its ……. or debts. In the eyes of the …… and the public, you are one and the same with the business.

Partnerships

In a partnership, two or more people …… ownership of a single business. Like ……… the law does not distinguish between the business and its owners. The partners should have a ……. agreement that sets forth how decisions will be made, profits will be shared, ……. will be resolved, how future partners will be admitted to the partnership, how partners can be …… out, and what steps will be taken to dissolve the partnership when needed. Yes, it’s hard to think about a ….. when the business is just getting started, but many partnerships split up at crisis times, and unless there is a defined process, there will be even greater problems. They also must decide up-front how much time and ……. each will contribute, etc.

Corporations

A corporation …… by the state in which it is headquartered is considered by law to be a unique ……., separate and apart from those who own it. A corporation can be taxed, it can be……, and it can enter into ……. agreements. The owners of a corporation are its …….. They elect a ……. to oversee the major ……. and decisions. The corporation has a life of its own and does not …… when ownership changes.

Subchapter S Corporations

A tax election only; this election enables the shareholder to treat the earnings and profits as …….. and have them pass through directly to their personal tax return. The catch here is that the shareholder, if working for the company, and if there is a profit, must pay him/herself wages, and must meet standards of «reasonable ……..». This can vary by geographical region as well as occupation, but the basic rule is to pay yourself what you would have to pay someone to do your job, as long as there is enough ……. If you do not do this, the …… can reclassify all of the earnings and profit as wages, and you will be liable for all of the payroll taxes on the total amount.

Limited Liability Company (LLC)

The LLC is a relatively new type of hybrid business structure that is now …….. in most states. It is designed to provide the …….. features of a corporation and the tax efficiencies and operational flexibility of a partnership. The owners are members, and the duration of the LLC is usually determined when the organization papers are ……. The time limit can be continued, if desired, by a vote of the members at the time of ……. LLCs must not have more than two of the four characteristics that define corporations: Limited liability to the extent of assets, ……. of life, centralization of management, and free …… of ownership interests.

Source: www.sba.gov .

Terms:

law, liabilities, transferability, IRS, profit, bought, sued, continuity, contractual, compensation, tax, breakup, limited liability, lawsuits, BoD, owner, attorney, filed, policies, tax, permissible, chartered, expiration, vision, control, structure, reinvest, cash, small, responsibilities, share, loss, proprietorships, legal, disputes, capital, entity, shareholders, dissolve, distributions, assets.

Exercise 5. You are an expert in business law and you are to advise an entrepreneur who wants to set up a software company on key legal issues of starting a new business. Invent a dialogue between these two individuals using briefing materials given below.

Four Paramount Legal Issues to Consider When Starting a Company

From business structure to taxes, there are numerous legal issues to address when starting a company, many of which can bring a promising start-up to a grinding halt if the proper steps are not taken. The following four issues most frequently cause problems.

1. Trademarks. Register your trademark. Simply reserving a domain name does not guarantee legal rights. Unregistered trademarks do not hold up well.

2. Deals with cofounders. Document all deals with cofounders in case disputes arise at a later date.

3. Employees. Consider legal issues of hiring employees. The largest area of potential liability for an entrepreneur often is employment law. Employees have many legal rights that must not be neglected.

4. Contract liability. Establish limits of liability in contracts by limiting the maximum liability to that of the contract and by excluding consequential damages.

Source: www.quickmba.com .

Exercise 6. Translate into English.

Организационные формы предпринимательской деятельности

Законодательство Соединенных Штатов Америки в части регистрации и функционирования предприятий представлено Законами о Компаниях (или их аналогами) соответствующих штатов. Основными формами ведения бизнеса являются партнерство, корпорация и компания с ограниченной ответственность (LLC).

Партнерство не является отдельным налогоплательщиком и предусматривает личную ответственность партнеров по обязательствам компании. Любые налоговые последствия переносятся на владельцев предприятия. Партнерство заполняет информационный отчет с расчетом прибылей и убытков, а затем распределяет приход, расход, доход, отчисления и т. д. в процентном соотношении между индивидуальными партнерами, которые должны включить эти статьи в свой индивидуальный налоговый отчет.

Корпорация же является юридическим лицом с ограниченной ответственностью, которое самостоятельно отвечает по своим обязательствам, а ответственность учредителей ограничена их вкладом в уставный фонд. Корпорация является самостоятельным налогоплательщиком, не зависящим от своих акционеров. При распределении дивидендов между акционерами корпоративный доход облагается повторно. Другими словами, доход корпорации подвергается федеральному налогообложению на двух уровнях: на корпоративном при взимании налога на доход корпорации, как юридического лица, и при распределении дивидендов.

LLC является смешанной формой. Так же, как и корпорация, LLC несет ответственность по своим обязательствам, ограниченную размером капитала, и управляется централизованно. От партнерства LLC получила ограниченное время жизни, передачу долей компании только при согласии других участников и, кроме того, компания не облагается федеральным налогом на прибыль корпораций. Вся полученная прибыль считается доходом учредителей, которые и платят подоходный налог по месту нахождения после распределения прибыли. Если учредителями LLC являются нерезиденты США, то подоходный налог платится только по доходам, полученным на территории США. Таким образом, LLC, зарегистрированная нерезидентами США, не должна платить налоги в США, если не извлекает доходов на их территории.

Налог на капитал взимается штатом при регистрации и в последствии – ежегодно. В каждом штате существует своя ставка налога и система расчета, основанная на минимальном размере капитала. Минимальный капитал компаний составляет, как правило, $100.00. Налог на прирост капитала отсутствует.

Выплаты в пользу данной компании со стороны американских резидентов, несмотря на то, что компания зарегистрирована в США. Что касается выплат компаниями других стран, то решение вопроса зависит от наличия договоров об избежании двойного налогообложения, их формулировок и процедуры освобождения от налога.

При регистрации LLC необходимо указать либо имена первоначальных участников (Initial Members), либо имена менеджеров компании (Members). И те, и другие могут быть как физическими лицами, так и компаниями. Все дальнейшие изменения в списке участников не регистрируются в официальных органах в большинстве штатов. В некоторых штатах имена менеджеров компании должны быть указаны в ежегодном отчете. Требуемое количество учредителей – один и более, в зависимости от штата. Учредители компании могут не назначать менеджера, а зарезервировать функции управления за собой.

Отчетность компании состоит из подачи ежегодного отчета в администрацию штата. Отчет не содержит информации о финансовой деятельности компании. Если компания пожелает стать на учет в налоговые органы США (Internal Revenue Service), то, помимо отчета штата, она должна будет ежегодно готовить отчет о полученных доходах. Постановка на учет в налоговых органах и подача отчета о доходах не меняют налогового статуса компании. Проводить ежегодный аудит не нужно.

Источник: http://www.commersant-pravo.ru/offshore4

Lesson 39
Making Presentations

Read and translate the following text.

The Art of Making Sales Presentations

How to sell what you present and to present what you sell…

A profitable sale of an excellent product and a happy Customer are important ingredients of corporate success. To close a sale, it is necessary to understand your Customer and your product, and to know how to present a product. For that, you have to master the art of sales presentations.

Mike Adams, GeoQuest Business Development Manager, and former Marketing Manager, shares his secrets of a successful presentation – Schlumberger style.

R.P.: Where can you learn to make presentations?

M.A.: Schlumberger organizes two-day courses where people study theory and practice of presentations. Then their own presentations are videotaped and discussed.

R.P.: What is the key to Schlumberger sales presentations?

M.A.: First – do not be very technical. Second – enthusiasm, enthusiasm, and nothing but enthusiasm.

You have to understand psychology of the audience. Don’t say «I»; use «you» to show that you think about your Customer rather than yourself. Integration with the audience is useful when you indicate that you are one of the guys: you also know what it is like to freeze in Siberia in winter.

You use your voice to make points and body language to communicate your message to the audience. Voice is a highlighter: do not speak at the same speed and without pauses. Eye contact is essential to scan people in the room. It leads to the art of mirroring when you react to the mental state of the audience. If they show interest – slow down and give more details, if they are getting bored – say something dramatic to wake them up.

You tell the audience what you are going to say, say it, and at the end repeat what you’ve just said.

R.P.: How do you attract your audience’s attention?

M.A.: You use a grabber. It can be a word play (you explain the difference a Schlumberger product will make) or a number play. You can tell stories: people will remember them when they forget everything else about a presentation. A whole presentation could be built around a story: how a company lost all geological data on an oil field because it did not have a data management system. Props will make your presentation more visual. Once, a presenter wanted to illustrate enhanced oil recovery: he opened a can of beer, and said «imagine that this beer can is your reservoir, and you could only produce this much (drinks about a 1/3 of the can) – does it make sense to leave so much oil in the ground?»

Dramas are very effective. During a presentation in Sochi at the GeoQuest International Forum, there were 6 people on the stage impersonating oil company’s professionals, from geologists to economists. They demonstrated how this team worked on a project with the help of specialised software.

R.P.: And what is the best way to close your presentation?

M.A. The close of sales presentation is crucial, because you want them to say «yes». You emphasise that your product is unique, relevant and focused on the Customer’s needs. And then you ask the audience: «What do you think?» You pause for as long as it takes them to answer you. You need to get public positive feedback. Be innocent, curious, open – and listen. If they say «I like it» then time comes for a call for action, i.e. where do we go from here?

R.P.: You describe preparation of a presentation as a very creative process. What else is needed to make it successful?

M.A.: In addition to creativity, you need some basic economics. You sell a product at a certain price, but costs for the Customer are higher, because there are expenses of its installation, training of personnel, and so on. The Customer buys a product only if its value is greater than its cost. You cannot do much about the price. So, you have to increase value for the Customer and do it during presentation. You can describe different types of value, that is business, financial and personal (image). You can remind that cost comes only once, at the beginning, and value will stay for a long time. Many presentations fail because presenters are unable to show value.

R.P.: What about questions and objections?

M.A.: The number of questions indicates success of your presentation. Do not be afraid of objections: they mean that the Customer is interested. To deal with them you use reframing. Usually, people object that the price of Schlumberger product is too high. You restate the objection: «Do you really think the price is too high?» without getting on the defensive and explain pitfalls of false economy – would you like to fly in a plane with inferior but cheap landing gear?

R.P.: Do you use slides during presentation?

M.A.: Not if I can avoid it. Presenters often use presentation software as a crutch – a flipchart is better because an audience likes to watch you draw and write. Make PowerPoint slides only when you cannot do without them. They must be brief – do not put more words on them than you can put on your T-shirt.

And remember, your presentation will succeed only if you truly believe that you have an excellent product to sell (and you do have!)

Source: Russian Panorama (Schlumberger Quarterly Magazine)

Lesson 40
Financial Statements

Study the following financial statements of an oil major and learn terms from the Essential Vocabulary.

Report of Independent Registered Public Accounting Firm on Consolidated Financial Statements

The Board of Directors and Stockholders

We have audited the accompanying consolidated balance sheets of XYZ Company as of December 31, 2007 and 2006, and the related consolidated statements of income, changes in common stockholders’ equity, and cash flows for each of the three years in the period ended December 31, 2007. These financial statements are the responsibility of the Company’s management. Our responsibility is to express an opinion on these financial statements based on our audits. We conducted our audits in accordance with the standards of the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (United States). Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the financial statements are free of material misstatement. An audit includes examining, on a test basis, evidence supporting the amounts and disclosures in the financial statements. An audit also includes assessing the accounting principles used and significant estimates made by management, as well as evaluating the overall financial statement presentation.

We believe that our audits provide a reasonable basis for our opinion. In our opinion, the financial statements referred to above present fairly, in all material respects, the consolidated financial position of XYZ Company at December 31, 2007 and 2006, and the consolidated results of its operations and its cash flows for each of the three years in the period ended December 31, 2007, in conformity with U.S. generally accepted accounting principles.

We also have audited, in accordance with the standards of the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (United States), the effectiveness of XYZ company internal control over financial reporting as of December 31, 2007, based on criteria established in Internal Control – Integrated Framework issued by the Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission and our report dated February 26, 2008 expressed an unqualified opinion thereon.

Auditor.

I. Consolidated Income Statement XYZ company

II. Consolidated Balance Sheet XYZ company

III. Consolidated Statement of Cash Flows XYZ Company

IV. Consolidated Statement of Changes in Common Stockholders’ Equity XYZ company

Essential Vocabulary

1. statement of changes in common stockholders’ equity – отчет о движении капитала акционеров за год

2. material a – зд. существенный

3. depreciation, depletion, amortization (DDA) – амортизация материальных и нематериальных активов и истощение недр

depletion n – истощение, исчерпывание

deplete v – истощать, исчерпывать

depleted a – истощенный

4. impairment n – обесценение, снижение стоимости

impair v – обесценивать, снижать стоимость, ухудшать

5. accretion n – прирост, приращение, увеличение

6. minority interest – доля меньшинства

7. cash equivalents – денежные эквиваленты

8. prepaid expense – расходы будущих периодов (заранее оплаченные расходы)

9. authorized shares – уставный капитал

10. capital in excess of par – дополнительный капитал, превышающий номинальный

11. reconciliation (reconcilement) n – урегулирование, приведение в соответствие, согласование

reconcile v– урегулировать, приводить в соответствие, согласовывать

12. dry hole costs – затраты на безуспешные геологоразведочные работы

13. advance n – аванс

14. foreign currency translation – пересчет суммы из одной валюты в другую

Exercise 1. Translate into English.

Заключение независимых аудиторов Совету директоров ОАО АВС

Мы провели аудит прилагаемого неконсолидированного бухгалтерского баланса ОАО АВС (далее Компания) по состоянию на 31 декабря 2007 г. и соответствующих неконсолидированных отчетов о прибылях и убытках, отчета о движении капитала и отчета о движении денежных средств за 2007 г. Ответственность за подготовку данной неконсолидированной финансовой отчетности несет руководство Компании. Наша ответственность заключается в выражении мнения относительно данной финансовой отчетности на основе проведенного аудита.

Мы проводили аудит в соответствии с Международными стандартами аудита. Согласно требованиям данных стандартов аудит планировался и проводился таким образом, чтобы получить разумную уверенность в том, что финансовая отчетность не содержит существенных искажений. Аудит включает проверку на выборочной основе подтверждений числовых данных и раскрытий, содержащихся в финансовой отчетности.

Кроме того, аудит включает анализ использованных принципов бухгалтерского учета и важнейших допущений, сделанных руководством, а также оценку представления финансовой отчетности в целом. Мы полагаем, что проведенный нами аудит дает достаточные основания для выражения нашего мнения.

По нашему мнению, данная неконсолидированная финансовая отчетность достоверно отражает во всех существенных отношениях неконсолидированное финансовое положение Компании по состоянию на 31 декабря 2007 г., неконсолидированные результаты ее деятельности и движение денежных средств за 2007 г. в соответствии с Международными стандартами финансовой отчетности.

I. Бухгалтерский баланс компании АВС на 31 декабря 2007 г. (млн российских рублей)

II. Отчет о прибылях и убытках за год, закончившийся 31 декабря 2007 г. (млн российских рублей)

III. Отчет о движении денежных средств за год, закончившийся 31 декабря 2007 г. (млн российских рублей)

IV. Отчет о движении капитала акционеров за год, закончившийся 31 декабря 2007 г. (млн российских рублей)

Keys to Exercises

Lesson 1

Exercise 5.levers, workforce, performance, command-and-control, delivers, environment, decision-making, delegation of authority, salary, fringe benefits, remuneration, driver, gain, adhere, assumption, job satisfaction, hygiene, extrinsic, challenging, rewards, value, needs

Lesson 2

Exercise 3.It is generally believed that stakeholders include employees, shareholders, creditors, suppliers, customers, competitors, government bodies, non-governmental organizations (particularly environmental organizations) and local communities.

Exercise 6.innovation, decision making, opportunities, founder, chains of command, channels of communication, accountable, multi-disciplined teams, associates, sponsors, objectives, skills, environment, credibility, drive, contribution, appointed, emerge, adhere, fairness, scope of responsibility, commitments, image

Lesson 3

Exercise 2.The following statements are incorrect: 3, 4, 6, 9, 10.

Exercise 5.manufacturer, designs, development, planners, engineers, showrooms, sales, focus, market share, delivering, competitive, customer, loyal, competitors, innovative, interviewed, launched, quality

Lesson 4

Exercise 4.employment, retirement, remuneration, promotions, appraisal, welfare, seniority, minority, staff, flexibility, operating costs, tasks, generalist, rotate, training, key performance indicators, recruitment, operational level, efficiency, commitment, focus, hands-on, trouble shooter, subordiante, development, decision making, embedded, values

Lesson 5

Exercise 3.Henry Ford – 5, Pavel Tretiakov – 2, Lee Iacocca – 3, Steve Jobs – 1, Vagit Alekperov – 5.

Exercise 4.CEO, transformed, market value, innovations, legacy, division, payroll, layoffs, focused, efficiency, cost structure, acquire, problem solving, differentiating, job evaluations, staff, rewarded, closing deals, leadership, reducing costs, launched, customers, suppliers base

Lesson 6

Exercise 2. value, estimate, assess, appraise, evaluate, rate

Exercise 4. execs, profits, performance, CEOs, revamped, underachieving, strategic decisions, pursue, overrated, brand, R&D team, outsourcing, price wars, value, shares, rebound, revenues, trends, shareholders, counterpart, growth, installations, approach, acquisition, shareholder value, deal, bid, competitor, fail, drive, boom, market niche, communications, failure, single-digit, stock price, stability, competition, cut costs

Lesson 7

Exercise 3.aim, target, end, task, objective, goal, mission, purpose

Exercise 4.progresses, marketing strategy, marketing mix, product awareness, branding, patents, trademarks, low penetration pricing, market share, high «skimming» pricing, development costs, selective, innovators, early adopters, communications, brand preference, features, demand, audience, diminishes, objective, maximizing, differentiate, incentives, focuses, maintain, reduce costs, loyal niche segment, discontinue, inventory

Lesson 8

Exercise 1.The following statements are not correct: 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10.

Exercise 2.make-and-sell marketing, sense-and-respond marketing, mass marketing, customized marketing, transaction marketing, relationship marketing, mediated marketing, direct marketing, single-channel marketing, multichannel marketing, product-centric marketing, customer-centric marketing, segment marketing, niche marketing, one-to-one marketing, Web marketing, database marketing, telemarketing, experiential marketing

Exercise 3.measure, performance, apply, superior, strategic management, evaluate, industry, develop, adopt, one-off, challenge, competitive, data, references, design, implementation, objectives, scope, support, approach, identify, surveys, implement, pilot, strategies, compete, focuses, perform, achieve, ranging, misunderstanding

Lesson 9

Exercise 3. corporate strategy, core, core competence, lower cost, consolidate, adapt, skills, portfolio, primacy, corporation business units, add value, competence building, access, perceived, competitors, enhancement, focus, world leadership, identified, perform, share

Lesson 10

Exercise 5.business strategy, fragmented, player, concentrated, strategic planning, predict, goal, intelligence, range, strategy decisions, drive, response profile, offensive, defensive, estimated, leverage

Lesson 11

Exercise 2.1. focused, 2. outcome, 3. drivers, 4. implemented, 5. objective, 6. incurred, 7. link, 8. customized

Exercise 4.tools, capability, performance, defect, morale, measure, pioneered, focuses, deviations, critical, variation, stability, delivering, perfection, number, figure, eliminate, zero-defects, origin, training, responsibility, supervise, scope, goals, implement, sponsors, objectives, occurrence, data, mapped, verified, identifying, effective, controls, sustain

Lesson 12

Exercise 2. Statements 1, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, 13 are not correct.

Exercise 3. 1. message, 2. cost of capital, 3. dividend, 4. performance, 5. peer, 6. NPV, 7. appreciation, 8. economic profit, 9. stock market

Exercise 4.corporate value, segments, worldwide, applied, goal-driven, decentralized, gaps, target, budgeted, reporting, linked, proactive, earning power, cost of capital, rate of return, profitability, benchmark, bonus, remuneration, performance, expansion, business units, withdrawal, entry, value generators, cash providers, dividend, core

Lesson 13

Exercise 2. 1. takeover; 2. outsider; 3. venture; 4. stock exchange; 5. volatility; 6. collusion; 7. bribe; 8. sophisticated

Exercise 4.balance of power, shifted, provided, independent, accounting scandal, run, destroy, consolidate, helm, appreciate, lawyers relations, shareholder value, expertise, shareholders, exercised, attitude, mentality, liability, failures, effectively, bankrupt, claims, auditors cooperation, outside, investigate, blame, motto, treatment, transactions, environment, fundamental, turnaround, corporate governance, stock options, competitive, performance, stock prices, abuses, set, fees, quality, issues, deals, regulators, micromanagement, risk averse, boards, downsizing, charge, advisors, consensus

Lesson 14

Exercise 2. 1. bankrupt, 2. auditor, 3. competitor, 4. merger, 5. scholarship, 6. commitment, 7. offset, 8. suit. 9. core, 10. provision

Exercise 5. bonuses, board, staff, competitiveness, checks and balances, fiscal, decisions, profits, corruption, hiring, human resources, recruiters, job, managers, environment, monitoring, basics, enforce, vision, units, employee-evaluation, ranking, downgrading, division, fire, rating, values, Task Force, failed, rules, demand, deal, background, trading, endorsed, consulting, hands-off, skills, executives, experience, run, financial statements

Lesson 15

Exercise 2.1. community, 2. fiduciary, 3. constituent, 4. procedure, 5. outcome, 6. expertise, 7. covenant, 8. endorse, 9. bylaw

Exercise 4.fraud, corporate governance, remuneration, stock options, executives, accounts, failed, boards, audit, auditors, credit rating, analysts, SEC, investment banks, deals, checks and balances, reporting, effectiveness, independence, chairman, conflicts of interest, issues, senior, best practice, responsibility, managing risks, accountability, embedded, quality, competence, staff, threat, malfeasance, whistleblowers, procedure, HR, mitigate, ethical, internal, domestic, operate, compliance, scope, discretion, empowerment, approach, values, scheme, principle, accountancy, focus, IT, background, expenses claims, security, controls

Lesson 16

Exercise 2.1. obligation, 2. sensitive, 3. supranational, 4. charity, 5. welfare, 6. litigation, 7. fine, 8. morale

Exercise 4.contribution, operations, employment, staff, downsizing, local content, expenditures, remuneration, statutory, allowance, bribes, corruption, facilitation, integrity, soliciting, dismissed, bidding, target, breaches, behalf, complaint, environmental, emissions, impacts, installations, certification, occupational safety, developing and emerging, competition, procedure, violate, training, completed, guilty, infringed, cartels, fines, fair trading, bids, defense, contested

Lesson 17

Exercise 2.pure competition, perfect competition, cutthroat competition, intense competition, moderate competition, weak competition, price competition, competition for customers, industry competition

Exercise 4. profitability, attractiveness, positioned, superior, leveraging, generic, business unit, low cost, profit, rivals, average, price war, matures, cost advantage, efficiencies, sustain, improves, leapfrog, targeting, segments, attributes, customers, value added, premium, incurred, suppliers, pass along, substitute, imitation, pursuing, narrow, loyalty, bargaining, target, broad-market, sub-segment, compatible, attempts, long term, «stuck in the middle»

Lesson 18

Exercise 2.The following statements are not correct: 2, 3, 5, 8, 9.

Exercise 4.fair, sue, media, governments, stake, major, privatization, investment, risks, players, outbid, investors, favorite, rumored, bid, backing, CEO, decision, analysts, access, replacement, alliance, know-how, equity, partnership, agreement, rights, deal, starting, stock, trading, boost, image, community, treatment, claims, majority, renationalized, stability, property, campaign, unpredictable

Lesson 19

Exercise 2.1. Seed Capital. 2. Startup. 3. First Stage. 4. Second Stage. 5. Third Stage. 6. Mezzanine Financing. 7. Private Placement. 8. Dilution. 9. Due Diligence. 10. Feasibility Study. 11. Equity Stake. 12. Sweat Equity.

Exercise 3.The following statements are not correct: 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9.

Exercise 4.agricultural, Apples, advantages, «science parks», attributed, institutions of higher education, hiring, faculty, recruit, cutting-edge, applications, marketplace, funds, equipment, commercialize, rent, fledgling, agglomeration, efforts, core, start up, semiconductor, revolutionized, scholars, founded, resign, manufacture, developed, pattern, outside, offshoots, government, underestimated, relocation, contractor, defence, procurement, highly qualified, rise, frontier, launched, trailblazers, communities, ventures, rewards, entrepreneurs, competing, rival, hierarchies, decentralization, autonomy, hi-tech, VC, IPO

Lesson 20

Exercise 2. repair, renew, retool, refurbish, revamp, revive, restore, refresh, refit, rehabilitate, recover, renovate, rationalize, reshape, upgrade

Exercise 3. 1. Crown Jewel. 2. Golden Parachute. 3. Greenmail. 4. Killer Bees. 5. Lobster Trap. 6. Maiden. 7. Nancy Reagan Defense. 8. Pac Man. 9. Parking. 10. Poison Pill. 11. Raider. 12. Safe Harbor. 13. Scorched Earth Defense. 14. Shark Repellents. 15. Stripper. 16. Suicide Pill. 17. White Knight.

Exercise 4. corporate finance, due diligence, shareholder value, swap, entity, «demerger», debt, acquiring, equity interest, high-yield, leveraged buyout, risk, third parties, cost of capital, borrower, shareholder’s equity, economies of scale, overlapping, capturing, cross selling, accounts, complementary, synergy, loss maker, write-offs, diversification, conservative, deliver value, downturn, portfolios, unmanageable, profile, empire building, remuneration, incentive

Lesson 21

Exercise 2.1. bull market, 2. current account, 3. default, 4. emerging markets, 5. globalization, 6. International Financial Corporation, 7. monetary policy, 8. systemic risk, 9. World Bank.

Exercise 3.

Counterparty risk – risk that a counterparty to a purchase or sale may fail to discharge his obligations.

Country (sovereign) risk – the hazard that political risk may arise in the country of operations.

Credit (repayment) risk – risk of a payer’s or a borrower’s failure to meet commitments.

Currency (exchange, trading, translation, transaction) risk – the risk, attaching to securities deals denominated in foreign currencies, that unforeseen exchange rate changes may affect balance-sheet value in the home currency or income amounts in the home currency.

Default risk – risk of a counterparty’s failure to make payments or repayments of interest or principal on the due date.

Delivery risk – risk that a party to a deal fails to make the contracted delivery.

Inflation risk – risk of devaluation of assets or incomes because of price hikes.

Interest rate risk – risk of losses because of changes in interest rates.

Liquidity risk – the risk in securities trading that the price of a security may fluctuate excessively owing to the lack of a sufficient volume of trading in the market.

Market risk – risk that an asset price drops and its owner incurs losses while selling the asset.

Operational risk – risk of careless or unprofessional actions of management resulting in losses.

Political risk – the risk of an adverse change in official policy such as in regard to taxation, tariffs, quotas, currency control, foreign ownership, nationalization, interest rates, etc.

Price risk – risk of changes in commodity or financial instrument prices over time.

Reinvestment risk – uncertainty about the future level of returns and interest rates after the current investment expires.

Systematic risk – risk that is characteristic for all securities of a given class and cannot be eliminated through portfolio diversification.

Systemic risk – a situation when problems in any one financial institution or market may spread, widely endangering the whole system.

Exercise 4.economy, US dollar terms, account for, worth, GDP, appreciation, exchange rates, average, shift, growth rates, individuals, per capita, spending, assumption, projections, challenges, forecasts, implications, pattern, activity, engine, demand, offset, ageing, returns, advanced, weight, portfolios, flows, currency, incomes, pricing, commodities, opportunities, global, strategic, list, richest

Lesson 22

Exercise 2.1. crowding out, 2. currency, 3. gold standard, 4. inflation, 5. interest rate, 6. investment, 7. liquidity trap, 8. money supply, 9. peg, 10. savings.

Exercise 4.macroeconomics, microeconomics, laissez-faire, Nobel, Economics, consumption, stabilization, federal, institution, contributed, Chicago School, affiliated, monetarist, money supply, phenomenon, Federal Reserve Bank, fiscal policy, restricted, Great Depression, financial shock, contraction, intervention, freely floating, negative income tax, welfare, bill, foundation, advisors, free market policies, relationship, economic situation

Lesson 23

Exercise 2.

Increase: climb, recover, mount, soar, pump up, push up, peak, rise, surge, grow, drive up, boost, expand, upturn, upswing, gain, hike, lift, shot up

Decrease: downturn, cut, push down, lower, decline, fall, plunge, drop, drive down, slip, diminish, contract, reduce

Exercise 3.1. capital expenditures, 2. depreciation, 3. balance of payments, 4. Central Bank, 5. corporate tax, 6. fiscal year, 7. foreign direct investments, 8. gross domestic product, 9. inventory, 10. public finance

Exercise 4.petrodollars, forecast, hard currency, averages, upbeat, advisor, oil sector, mismanagement, wealth, natural resources, growth, windfall, spending, crunch, Stabilization Fund, accumulating, boost, tax revenues, hike, threshold, fiscal discipline, populist, outlays, GDP, cash payments, fiscal policy, public finances, budget surplus, inflation, upward, consumer prices, target, exacerbate, strengthening, manufacturers, value, in real terms, appreciate, macroeconomic, institutions, stability, «rents», interference, interest groups

Lesson 24

Exercise 2.1. free trade, 2. free trade zone, 3. IMF, 4. Maastricht Treaty, 5. multinational company, 6. NAFTA, 7. protectionism, 8. stock exchange, 9. WTO

Exercise 4.developing nations, global markets, «invisible hand», deregulation, barriers, cross-border, exposed, comparative, trading partners, low wage, market forces, central planning, downward, inflation, volatility, innovation, structural shift, outlook, transitional, division of labor, specialization, transactions, world economy, stimulus, incentive, function, impetus, risk-adjusted rates of return, borders

Lesson 25

Exercise 3.1. economies of scale, 2. economies of scope, 3. horizontally integrated MNC, 4. kickback, 5. license, 6. MNC, 7. quota, 8. red tape, 9. vertically integrated MNC

Exercise 5.developing countries, multinationals, doing business, government officials, co-chairs, FDI, administrative reform, banking system, red tape, working group, boosting, strengths, labor costs, education, consensus, investment climate, awareness, executives, media, opportunities, campaign, attracting, tax, capital intensive, locations, community, representation, venue, impact, Customs, legislation

Lesson 26

Exercise 2.advance payment, bill of exchange, capital goods, consumables, consumer goods, jobbing, manufacture, open account trading, person, raw material, spare part

Exercise 4.consumption, FDI, multinational, commitments, liberalize, productivity, tariff barriers, antidumping, expansion, import protection, contract, return on investment, households, safety nets, adverse, transition, unskilled, displaced, incur, retraining, relocation, living standards, public policy, sustained, incentives, offset

Lesson 27

Exercise 2.The following statements are not correct: 2, 3, 4, 8, 11.

Exercise 3.1. ask (offer) price, 2. base currency, 3. bid price, 4. central bank, 5. commission, 6. counter currency, 7. cross currency pairs or cross rate, 8. fundamental analysis, 9. intervention, 10. limit order, 11. liquidity, 12. lot, 13. pips, 14. quote, 15. settlement, 16. spread, 17. technical analysis, 18. transaction cost

Exercise 4.marketplace, transactions, contracts, negotiated, counterparties, delivery, currency, notional, FX, derivatives, interbank, binding, instrument, traders, underlying, profit, risks, rewards, exit, positions, «open outcry», E-trading, individual investors, MNCs, fluctuations, transparent, liquid, clearing, fees, physical, cash-settled

Lesson 28

Exercise 2.The following statements are not correct: 1, 3, 4, 5, 7.

Exercise 3.1. broker, 2. dealer, 3. full disclosure, 4. liquidity, 5. NASDAQ, 6. OTC, 7. secondary market, 8. SEC, 9. settlement

Exercise 4.stock market, regulator, SEC, fraudulent, easy, hazardous, structured, industry, supervision, public, securities, divisions, compliance, overseeing, disclosure, filed, transparency, filings, material, offerings, reports, M&As, proxy voting, AGMs, fair self-regulating organizations, broker-dealer, rules, disagreements, surveillance, overseers, advisors, registered, regulations, violations, law-enforcement, criminal, insider trading, fiduciary, integrity

Lesson 29

Exercise 3.1. collateral, 2. bearer, 3. capital market, 4. corporation, 5. equity, 6. marketable securities, 7. private placement, 8. registered security, 9. secondary market, 10. securities markets, 11. securitization, 12. stock

Exercise 4.volatile, community, sophisticated, utility, ADRs, depository, entity, custodian, issued, transaction, underlying, securities, agent, initiating, convert, delivered, notifies, transfer, registrar, intra-market, cancellation, cross-border, surrenders, cancels, holder, financial, OTC, exempted, compliance, disclosure, publicly-traded, GAAP, SEC, regulatory, execute, Form 6, listing, exchanges, offering, due dilligence, public, raise, placements, qualified, eligible, issuers, awareness, standards, liquidity

Lesson 30

Exercise 2.1. callable bond, 2. certificate of deposit, 3. credit quality, 4. high grade, 5. long term debt, 6. maturity, 7. municipal bond, 8. stock buyback, 9. Treasury Bills, 10. Treasury Bonds, 11. Treasury Notes, 12. yield, 13. yield curve

Exercise 4.downside, budget surplus, emerging markets, profitable, in the black, downgrade, private sector, institutional investors, secondary market, underperform

Exercise 5.bonds, stocks, performance, volatility, portfolio strategy, asset, individual investors, rewards, money market, financial, cash, parameters, allocation, equity-only, equity market, growth, objectives, capital, income, return, Wall Street, weighted, conservative, fixed-income, holdings, dividends, supplement, deregulation, appreciation, competitive, funds, buybacks, course, foreseeable, trend, incentives, diversified, stream, flexibility, interest

Lesson 31

Exercise 2.1. bridge financing, 2. caveat emptor, 3. Chinese Wall, 4. conflict of interests, 5. Glass Steagall Act, 6. investment analyst, 7. joint and several liability, 8. lead manager, 9. market maker, 10. oversubscribing, 11. syndicate, 12. underwriting

Exercise 3.сapital, household, issues, IPOs, conditions, returns, transparency, governance, funds, public, equity, profile, listing, attracting, holdings, consumer, exposure, demand, multiples, priced, weighting, oversubscribed, NYSE, floated, range, traded, opening, closed, offer, overseas, analyst, road show, securities, Big Board, leveraging, awarded, disclosed, prospectus, involvement, announced, stock, international, acquired, stake, goods, commitment, player, Chairman

Lesson 32

Exercise 2.1. bear market, 2. bull market, 3. futures contract, 4. going long, 5. going short, 6. limit order, 7. option, 8 rally, 9. stop loss order, 10. whipsaw

Exercise 4.appreciating, depreciating, attitudes, bull, uptrend, economy, employment, bear, downward, laying, stock, demand, supply, share, sell, buy, individuals, fundamental, performance, profit, equities, fixed income, confidence, decline, trading, exchanges, record, consumers, valuates, drives, determinant, trend, correction, determine, tendency, reversal, multiple, decisions, stagnation, flat

Lesson 33

Exercise 2.1. basis point, 2. blue chip, 3. capital expenditures, 4. country risk, 5. debt, 6. Eurobond, 7. IAS, 8. market capitalization, 9. premium, 10. spread

Exercise 4.profit, income, earnings

Exercise 5.opportunity, invested, institutional, gains, mutual, retail, block, volume, exchanges, worth, earnings, market, research, piggybacking, focus, upside, pros, valuation, premium, peers, prospects, watch, winners, dynamic, performance, bullishness, insurance, purchase, portfolio, break-even, gain, trading, damage, game, rebounds, forecast, deal, bargain, falling, average, current, indexes, accumulation, distribution

Lesson 34

Exercise 2. 1. CUSIP number, 2. DCF, 3. EBIT, 4. lease, 5. operating cash flow, 6. par value, 7. profit, 8. risk premium, 9. terminal value, 10. unleveraged shares

Exercise 4. target, upgrade, recommendation, operating, performance, disposable, capita, consumption, schedules, raise, turnover, projections, year-on-year, discount, risk-free, WACC, P/E, posted, trades, peers, multiples

Lesson 35

Exercise 2.1. compound interest, 2. diversification, 3. efficient market, 4. gearing, 5. ROE, 6. risk taker, 7. standard deviation, 8. systematic risk, 9. unsystematic risk

Exercise 4. high-yield bond, risk averse, protectionism, depreciation, bid price, bear market, equity financing, liabilities, sell-side, independent directors

Exercise 5. fund, environment, advice, fundamental, income, fair, bargain-priced, overpriced, superior, portfolios, upside, undervalued, screening, criteria, sentiment, value, returns, stream, practices, outlook, hold, diversification, performance, asset, dimension

Leeson 36

Exercise 2. 1. asset, 2. balance sheet, 3. collection period ratio, 4. corporate finance, 5. cost of goods sold, 6. current assets, 7. dividend, 8. inventory, 9. leverage, 10. payables, 11. receivables, 12. stock buyback, 13. term loan

Exercise 3.time value, investments, interest, cash flows, present, future, adjusting, mechanism, compounded, discounted, stream, annuities, model, pattern, inflows, outlay, alternative, valuation

Lesson 37

Exercise 1.acid-test ratio, fixed assets, preference shares, gearing, leverage trading, par value, stocks, unlevered firm, profit and loss statement, exercise price

Lesson 38

Exercise 2. The following statements are not correct: 2, 4, 7, 8.

Exercise 3. 1. civil law, 2. tort, 3. fraud, 4. remedy, 5. judge, 6. plea, 7. attorney, 8. lawsuit, 9. freeze.

Exercise 4. Owner, attorney, vision, control, structure, lawsuits, tax, loss, reinvest, cash, small, responsibilities, assets, liabilities, law, share, proprietorships, legal, disputes, bought, breakup, capital, chartered, entity, sued, contractual, shareholders, BoD, policies, dissolve, distributions, compensation, profit, IRS, permissible, limited liability, filed, expiration, continuity, transferability.

English-Russian dictionary

A

absentee a – отсутствующий (на работе), прогульщик

absenteeism n – абсентеизм, прогул

abuse n – нарушение, злоупотребление; оскорбление, плохое обращение

abuse v – нарушать, злоупотреблять; оскорблять, плохо обращаться

accelerator effect – эффект акселератора (ускорителя) (взаимосвязь темпов экономического роста и уровня инвестиций)

access n – доступ

access v – иметь доступ

accessible a – доступный

account n – счет

account (for) v – учитывать, приходиться на долю

accountability n – отчетность, подотчетность; расчет; ответственность

accountable a – отчетный, подотчетный

accounting n – бухгалтерский учет

accounting a – бухгалтерский

accountingconventions – учетные правила

accounting profit – учетная (бухгалтерская) прибыль

accretion n – прирост, приращение, увеличение

accrual n – начисление

accrue v – начислять

acquisition n – поглощение; приобретение

acquire v – поглощать; приобретать

across-the-board – повсеместный, тотальный, включающий все категории и классы

activity-based costing (ABC) – система учета по видам деятельности

actual (A) a – фактический (в статистических таблицах)

ad (advertisement) – реклама (амер. жаргон)

ad valorem (ad val) – «со стоимости», «адвалорный» (метод расчета налога, тарифа или вознаграждения в форме фиксированного процента от стоимости)

adhere (to) v – придерживаться (правил), соблюдать

adherence (to) n – приверженность, соблюдение (правил)

adjust v – корректировать

Adjusted Present Value (APV) – скорректированная приведенная ценность

adjustment n – корректировка

administrativeauthority – административный орган

administrative law – административное право

advance n – аванс

advantage n – преимущество

advertising budget – бюджет на рекламу

advice n – совет, консультация; авизо; мнение

advisor n – советник, консультант

advise v – консультировать

advisory a – совещательный, консультативный

advocacy n – защита, адвокатура; пропаганда

advocate n – адвокат, защитник, заступник, сторонник

advocate v – отстаивать, защищать, выступать в защиту; пропагандировать

ADX (Average Directional Movement Index) line – линия ADX

affiliate n – аффилированная компания

affiliation n – членство, принадлежность

after-sale services – послепродажное обслуживание

age group – возрастная группа

agencies n, pl – ценные бумаги федеральных агентств США

agency n – агентство; агент; юридические отношения между принципалом и агентом, агентские услуги

agency auction market – агентский аукционный рынок

agenda n – повестка дня

agent n – агент, посредник

aggregate demand – совокупный спрос

align v – располагать по одной линии, равняться, выравнивать; наводить

alignment n – расположение по одной линии, выравнивание, совпадение

all-equity financing – финансирование только на основе собственного капитала

alliance n – союз

ally n – союзник

ally (to, with) v – соединять(ся), вступать в союз

allocate v – распределять, назначать; ассигновать, размещать

allocation n – распределение, назначение; ассигнование, размещение

allowance n – налоговая скидка; денежное содержание; допущение, резерв, скидка с цены

also known as (a.k.a.) – также известный как

Alternative Trading System (ATS) – альтернативная торговая система

American Stock Exchange (AMEX) – Американская фондовая биржа

Annual General Meeting (AGM) – ежегодное общее собрание акционеров

annualizing n – пересчет в годовое исчисление

annualize v – пересчитывать на годовой основе

annualized a – пересчитанный на годовой основе

annuity n – аннуитет, рента (регулярно поступающие равные платежи)

anti-trust law – антитрестовский закон

apparel industry – производство одежды

Appellate (Appeal(s)) Court – апелляционный суд

application n – заявка, заявление

applicant n – заявитель

appoint v – назначать, утверждать; договариваться (о встрече), назначать встречу; предназначать, отводить

appointment n – назначение, должность; встреча, прием

appreciate v – ценить, оценивать по достоинству, хорошо разбираться; повышаться (курс валют или акций)

appreciation n – высокая оценка, признательность, оценка по достоинству; повышение цены, удорожание, повышение курса (валюты или акций)

approval n – одобрение, утверждение

approve v – одобрять, утверждать

arm’s length – «на расстоянии вытянутой руки» (напр. сделка, проводимая так, что между сторонами нет юридических или финансовых связей во избежание конфликта интересов)

ascendance n – власть, доминирующее положение

assembly line – сборочная линия, конвейер

assembly plant – сборочный завод

asset n – актив

asset management – управление активами

assign v – назначать, поручать; уступать

assignment n – задание; уступка; назначение, поручение

assumption n – предположение; предпосылка; принятие ответственности

assume v – предполагать; создавать предпосылку; принимать ответственность

assurance obligations – страховые обязательства

attorney n – атторней, уполномоченный, доверенный; поверенный, юрист, адвокат; прокурор

audit committee – комитет по аудиту

auspices n, pl – эгида, покровительство

authority n – власть, орган власти, полномочие

authorized shares – уставной капитал

automotive company – автомобилестроительная компания

average v – в среднем равняться

average a – средний

awareness n – знание, осознание, осведомленность

(to be) aware (of) pass – осознавать, отдавать себе отчет

B

back office – «бэк»-офис, вспомогательный офис

background n – задний план, фон, обстановка подготовка, образование, квалификация,

background a – фоновой, прошлый

backlog n – задолженность, просроченная работа, портфель заказов

backward integration – обратная интеграция

backward quote – обратная котировка

bail out v – спасать, выручать

bailout n – спасение, выручка

balance of payments (ВОР) – платежный баланс; сальдо расчетов по торговле товарами и услугами; движения капиталов

balance of trade (ВОТ) – торговый баланс

balanced scorecard – сбалансированная система показателей

bank loan – банковский заем

Bank of England (ВЕ, ВоЕ) – Центральный банк Великобритании

bargain v – торговаться, вести переговоры, договариваться, уславливаться

bargain n – сделка или операция, договоренность; выгодная покупка

bargaining n – ведение переговоров

barter n – бартер

barter v – осуществлять бартерный обмен

base currency – базовая валюта

base salary – базовая зарплата

base-case scenario – базовый сценарий

basis point (bps) – базисный пункт

basket n – корзина (напр. валют)

batch n – партия, группа

bear market – рынок «медведей»

bearer security – ценная бумага на предъявителя

below-the-line expenses – расходы, имеющие необычный характер и указываемые ниже черты в счете прибылей и убытков

benchmark n – база, ориентир, стандарт, эталон

benchmarking n – бенчмаркинг

beneficial a – полезный, льготный

beneficiary n – бенефициар

benefit n – право, привилегия, льгота, польза, преимущество

benefit v – получать привилегию, пользу, льготу, преимущество; выигрывать

best practice – лучшая практика

beta – коэффициент бета

bid v – предлагать (цену), участвовать в торгах

bid n – предложение

bidder n – покупатель; лицо, предлагающее цену; участник торгов

bill n – переводной вексель (тратта), казначейский вексель; банкнота; счет; документ о передаче прав собственности на товар; свидетельство долга заемщика кредитору; билль (закон)

bill of lading – коносамент

biz (business) – бизнес (амер. жаргон)

blue chip – голубая фишка

blue sky law – «законы голубого неба» (законы ряда штатов, предназначенные для защиты от мошенничества при эмиссии и торговле ценными бумагами)

Board of Directors (BoD) – Совет директоров

Board of Governors – Совет управляющих

bond n – облигация

bondholder n – владелец облигации

bonus n – бонус, премия (сотруднику)

books of account – бухгалтерские книги компании

boom n – бум, быстрый экономический подъем, период экономического процветания

boom v – быстро расти, процветать (об экономике)

boost n – поддержка, проталкивание; повышение, ускорение

boost v – поднимать, подпихивать; рекламировать; повышать, ускорять

borrow v – заимствовать

borrowed a – заемный

borrower n – заемщик

borrowing n – заимствование

bottom line – итоговая строка баланса или счета, финальная прибыль или убыток, окончательный результат, конечная цель

boutique firm – маленькая специализированная брокерская фирма или инвестиционный банк с ограниченным кругом операций, клиентов и услуг

branding n – брендинг

breakthrough n – прорыв

break up v – разделять, разрывать

breakup n – разделение (компании), разрыв

breakup fee – неустойка, комиссия за прекращение контракта

bribe n – взятка

bribe v – давать взятку

bridge financing – промежуточное финансирование

brief n – (зд.) сводка, резюме; краткое письменное изложение дела; записка по делу, представляемая адвокатом в апелляционный суд

brief v – составлять сводку, резюмировать; поручать ведение дела адвокату; давать инструкции адвокату

brokerage account – брокерский счет

bubble n – пузырь (ситуация, когда конъюнктура поднимается до уровня, не имеющего объективной основы)

budget deficit – дефицит бюджета

budget surplus – бюджетный профицит

bulk n – величина, масса, объем, большие количества; основная масса, бо€льшая часть

bulk-to-value ratio – отношение массы груза к его ценности

bullet n – зд. безотзывная облигация

bull market – рынок «быков»

Bureau of Census – Бюро переписей (Министерства торговли США)

business cycle – цикл деловой активности

business law – право, регулирующее область деловых отношений

business unit – бизнес-единица

Buy – «покупать» (инвестиционная рекомендация)

buy long – «длинная» покупка

buy side – организации, занимающиеся приобретением ценных бумаг

buyback v – выкупать

buyback n – обратная покупка, выкуп

buying (purchasing) power – покупательная способность

buy out v – выкупать

buyout n – выкуп

bylaw n – подзаконный акт, регламент, внутренние правила и регламент деятельности компании

С

callable bond – отзывная облигация

call option – опцион «колл»

campaign n – кампания

cap n – зд. фиксированный максимум, верхний предел

cap v – зд. устанавливать верхний предел

capacity n – способность, потенциал; роль или функция; производственная мощность

capital account (c/а) – капитальный счет

Capital Assets Pricing Model (CAPM) – модель оценки фиксированных активов

сapital control – контроль над движением капитала

сapital expenditures (capex) – капитальные расходы (на приобретение или реновацию основного капитала)

сapital flight – бегство капитала

сapital gains – приращение капитала

сapital gains tax – налог на приращение капитала

сapital goods – капитальные товары (средства производства, здания, дороги и др. активы, используемые при производстве других товаров)

capital in excess of par – дополнительный капитал, превышающий номинальный

capital inflow – приток капитала

capital market – рынок капитала

capitalization n – капитализация

capitalize (on) v – капитализировать, использовать что-то в своих интересах

cargo n – груз

carriage n – перевозка; проведение, принятие голосованием

carrier n – перевозчик, фрахтовщик

carmaker (automaker) n – автомобилестроитель

cascade n – каскад

cascade v – спускать вниз по принципу каскада

cash cycle – денежный цикл

cash equivalents – денежные эквиваленты

cash flow – денежный поток

cash flow statement – отчет о движении денежных средств

Caveat emptor – лат. «пусть покупатель остерегается», «качество на риске покупателя»

centrally planned economy – плановая экономика

CertificateofDeposit (CD) – депозитный сертификат

chain of command – цепочка (иерархия) подчиненности

challenge n – вызов

challenge v – бросать вызов

challenging a – сложный, интересный

charge n – цена, плата, денежный сбор; расход, издержки, налог, комиссия за услуги; нагрузка; руководство, ответственность; обвинение, нападение

charge v – нагружать; пропитывать; поручать, вверять, приказывать; обвинять; назначать цену, запрашивать цену; записывать в долг, относить на счет, дебетовать; атаковать

charitable a – благотворительный

charity n – благотворительность

chart point – точка на графике

checking account – чековый (текущий) счет

checks and balances – система сдержек и противовесов

Chief Executive Officer (CEO) – главный исполнительный директор

Chief Financial Officer (CFO) – главный финансовый директор

Chief Operating Officer (COO) – главный операционный директор (отвечает за повседневную деятельность, текущие операции корпорации)

Chief Technology Officer (CTO) – главный технический директор

Chinese Wall – «китайская стена» (жесткое разделение функций инвестиционного банка в сфере корпоративных финансов и торговли ценными бумагами)

circumvent v – обмануть, обойти, перехитрить, расстроить (планы)

circumvention n – обман, хитрость, обход

civil law – римское право; внутригосударственное право (в отличие от международного права); гражданское право; позитивное право (в отличие от естественного права)

claim n – требование, право, претензия, иск, рекламация; участок земли, отведенный под разработку недр

claim v – требовать, претендовать; утверждать; возбуждать иск о возмещении убытков

close the books – закрытие бухгалтерских книг к концу периода

closed position – закрытая позиция

code n – код, кодекс, сборник правил

code of conduct – кодекс поведения

coerce v – удерживать, заставлять, принуждать, добиться путем принуждения

coercion n – принуждение, сдерживание силой, физическое давление

coercive a – принудительный

collaborate v – сотрудничать

collaboration n – сотрудничество, совместная работа

collaborative a – на основе сотрудничества, совместный

collateral (collat) n – обеспечение

collateral transfer – передача обеспечения

collateralized loan – обеспеченный кредит

Collateralized Mortgage Obligation (CMO) – обеспеченная ипотечная облигация

collection period – средний срок инкассации поступлений

collude v – вступать в сговор

collusion n – тайный сговор

command-and-control methods – командно-административные методы

Commerce Department – Министерство торговли США

commercial bank – коммерческий банк

commit (to) v – брать обязательства; совершать; поручать, вверять; подвергать

committed (to) a – преданный, приверженный

commitment (to) n – обязательства, приверженность, преданность; совершение

Committee on Uniform Securities Identification Procedures (CUSIP) – Комитет по единым процедурам идентификации ценных бумаг (США)

commoditize v – превращать в обычные товары

commodity market – товарный рынок

commodity products – товары (чаще всего сырьевые)

common law – общее право; англо-саксонское право

common stock – обыкновенные акции

commonwealth court – суд штата (в США)

communication n – коммуникации, передача, сообщение, связь

communicate v – сообщать, передавать, общаться, доносить

community n – община, сообщество

compensating balance – компенсационный остаток

compensation committee – комитет по вознаграждению

competence n – компетентность, умение, способность, компетенция

competitive edge – конкурентное преимущество

competitor n – конкурент

competition n – конкуренция

competitiveness n – конкурентоспособность

compete v – конкурировать

competitive a – конкурентоспособный

complain v – жаловаться; подавать жалобу, иск

complaint n – жалоба, иск, недовольство

compliance (with) n – согласие; соответствие правилам, соблюдение (законов, правил)

comply (with) v – соглашаться, соответствовать, соблюдать

compound a – начисляемый, кумулятивный, сложный (процент)

compound annual growth rate (CAGR) – кумулятивный годовой темп роста

comprehensive a – всеобъемлющий, всесторонний, совокупный (в бухучете)

Concentration Ratio (CR) – показатель концентрации

Congressional Budget Office (CBO) – Бюджетный комитет Конгресса

consent n – совпадение воль, согласие

consolidated tape – консолидированная лента

consolidate v – консолидировать

consolidation n – консолидация (реинвестирование дохода, полученного от продажи акций, в менее рискованные ценные бумаги; конверсия краткосрочной задолженности в долгосрочную; укрепление рыночной конъюнктуры; объединение отчетности компаний группы)

constituent n – составная часть, элемент; избиратель

constituent a – имеющий право голоса, избирающий; законодательный; составной

constitutional law – конституционное право, государственное право; конституционный закон, основной закон

consume v – потреблять

consumer n – потребитель

consumer confidence index – индекс уверенности потребителя

consumer electronics – бытовые электронные приборы

Сonsumer Price Index (CPI) – индекс потребительских цен

consumption n – потребление

contagion n – заражение (риск распространения финансового кризиса из одной страны в другую или риск того, что проблемы дочерних компаний перекинутся на материнскую)

contingent order – условный приказ

contractor n – подрядчик

contrary opinion – мнение, противоположное всеобщему

contribute (to) v – вносить вклад

contribution (to) n – вклад

controls n – регулирующие устройства, рычаги или механизмы контроля

controversy n – противоречие, спор, дискуссия

controversial a – противоречивый, спорный, дискуссионный

converge v – сближаться

convergence n – конвергенция, сближение

convertible debt instruments (bonds) – конвертируемые долговые инструменты (облигации)

cooling n – сдерживание (экономики), замедление, охлаждение

cooperative society – кооператив

copyright n – авторское право

copyright v – защищать авторским правом

copyright law – закон по защите авторских прав

core competency – основная сфера компетенции

corporate bond (corporate) – корпоративная облигация

corporatecitizen – социально ответственная корпорация

corporate citizenship – социально ответственное поведение корпораций

corporate culture – корпоративная культура

corporate finance – корпоративные финансы

corporate governance – корпоративное управление

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) – социальная ответственность корпораций

corporate tax – корпорационный налог

cost n – затраты, издержки, расходы; цена, стоимость, себестоимость

cost v – стоить, обходиться; расценивать (товар)

costly a – дорогой, дорогостоящий, ценный

cost base – база затрат

cost effective a – эффективный по издержкам

cost of capital – стоимость капитала

cost of goods sold (COGS) – себестоимость реализованной продукции

cost/benefit (analysis) – анализ издержек и прибыли

counsel v – давать совет, рекомендовать, давать юридическое заключение

counseling n – консультирование, совет

counselor n – советник, адвокат

counterclaim n – встречное требование, встречный иск

counter-cyclical – антициклический

counterpart n – двойник, аналог, копия, дубликат; противная сторона

counterparty risk – риск контрагента

country (sovereign) risk – страновой риск

coupon rate – купонная ставка

covariance n – ковариация

covenant n – договор; условие или статья договора, ограничивающие действия одной или двух сторон

cover n – покрытие; гарантийный фонд, страхование; чехол, переплет; убежище, укрытие, покров, личина

cover v – покрывать, прикрывать, скрывать, обеспечить покрытие, покрывать убытки; страховать, предусматривать; проехать; освещать

coverage n – охват; прикрытие; освещение (событий); общая сумма риска, покрытая страхованием

create v – создавать, творить

creative a – творческий

creativity n – творчество

credential(s) n – мандат, удостоверение личности, верительная грамота

credible a – пользующийся доверием

credibility n – кредит доверия

credit (repayment) risk – кредитный риск

credit card advance – аванс по кредитной карте

credit line – кредитная линия

credit rating – кредитный рейтинг

credit union – кредитный союз

creditworthiness n – кредитоспособность

creditworthy a – кредитоспособный

creeping (re)nationalization – ползучая (ре)национализация

criminal law – уголовное право

cross currency – кросс-валюта

cross-border transaction – международная операция

crowd out v – вытеснять

crowding out n – вытеснение (крупные государственные заимствования, ограничивающие возможность заимствований частных компаний через взвинчивание процентных ставок)

Crown Jewel – «драгоценности короны» (наиболее привлекательные подразделения корпорации, которые обычно являются главной целью при поглощении)

currency n – валюта

currency (exchange, trading, translation, transaction) risk – валютный риск

currency (foreign exchange) market – валютный рынок

currency fluctuations – валютные колебания

current account (С/а) – текущий платежный баланс, текущий счет

current assets – текущие (краткосрочные) активы

current ratio – коэффициент текущей ликвидности

custodial a – попечительский

custodian n – попечитель, финансовый агент, хранитель

customer n – клиент

customer (client) base – клиентская база

customers’ preferences – предпочтения клиентов

customize v – специально разрабатывать под нужды клиента

customized a – специально разработанный

Customs Service – таможенная служба

cutthroat competition – ожесточенная конкуренция

cycle time – время рабочего цикла

D

days purchases in accounts payable ratio – средний срок оплаты поставщиков

days to sell inventory ratio – средний срок продажи запасов

day-to-day а – повседневный

debit n – дебет, левая сторона счета

debit v – дебетовать счет, записать по дебету счета

debt n – долг, долговые инструменты

debt capital – заемный капитал

debt ratio – отношение заемного к собственному капиталу

debt to equity (D/E) ratio – отношение заемного капитала к собственному

debt to value (D/V) ratio – отношение заемного капитала к ценности компании

debtor n – должник

decision-maker – лицо, принимающее решения

decision-making process – процесс принятия решений

dedicate v – посвящать

dedicated a – посвященный, приверженный, преданный

dedication n – посвящение, преданность, приверженность

deduct v – вычитать

deductible a – подлежащий вычету (напр. для целей налогообложения)

deduction n – вычет, вычитание

default n – дефолт, невыполнение денежных обязательств, неплатеж, отказ от уплаты долга

default risk – риск дефолта

default v – объявлять дефолт

defaulter n – сторона, не выполняющая обязательства; неплательщик, банкрот

defendant n – ответчик; обвиняемый; подсудимый

defense n – оборона; защита; обстоятельство, освобождающее от ответственности

defend v – обороняться, защищаться; защищать на суде, выступать защитником; возражать; запрещать

defense n – оборона, оборонная промышленность

defensive a – оборонительный

defensive/offensivestrategy – оборонительная/наступательная стратегия

defer v – отсрочивать, откладывать; считаться с чьим-то мнением

deferral n – отсрочка, откладывание

deferred a – отсроченный, отложенный; пониженный, замедленный

deficit spending – дефицитное расходование (превышение правительственных расходов над доходами, приводящее к бюджетному дефициту и необходимости заимствований)

deflation n – дефляция

delegate responsibility – делегировать ответственность

delist v – лишать котировки

delisting n – лишение котировки

delivery risk – риск поставки

deliver v – поставлять

deliverables n – результаты (осязаемые)

delivery n – поставка

demand n – спрос, требование, потребность, нужда

demand v – требовать

demanding a – требовательный, сложный

demand-side – на стороне спроса

Department of Commerce (U.S.) – Министерство торговли США

deplete v – истощать, исчерпывать

depleted a – истощенный

depletion n – истощение, исчерпывание

deposit account (DA) – депозитный счет

deposition n – письменное показание под присягой; приобщение к материалам дела; приобщенное к материалам дела доказательство; низложение, свержение

depreciate v – обесцениваться, уменьшаться в стоимости, амортизироваться

depreciation n – снижение стоимости, обесценение, снижение курса, девальвация, амортизация материальных активов

depreciation, depletion, amortization (DDA) – амортизация материальных и нематериальных активов и истощение недр

depression n – депрессия (период вялой деловой активности)

deregulation n – дерегулирование: уменьшение государственного регулирования кредитной системы, финансовых рынков для поощрения действия рыночных сил и повышения эффективности экономики

derivative n – созданный на базе чего-то, производный (в т. ч. финансовый инструмент)

derivative a – производный

detach v – отделять, отцеплять, разъединять

detachable a – отделяемый, съемный, отрывной

Deutsche Bundesbank – Немецкий федеральный банк

devalue v – обесценивать

devaluation n – девальвация, обесценение

develop v – развивать, разрабатывать, совершенствовать; проявлять

development n – развитие, разработка, совершенствование; проявка

deviate v – отклоняться

deviation n – отклонение

differentiation n – дифференциация, дифференцирование, установление различий, разделение, специализация

differentiate v – дифференцировать, устанавливать различия

diffuse v – распространяться, рассредоточиваться

diffusion n – диффузия, проникновение, распространение, рассредоточение

dilute v – разбавлять, разводнять

dilution n – разбавление, разводнение (капитала)

direct public offer – прямое публичное предложение акций

direct quote – прямая котировка

disclose v – раскрывать (информацию), разглашать

disclosure n – раскрытие (информации), разглашение

discount broker – «дисконтный» брокер

discount rate – ставка дисконтирования

Discounted Cash Flow (DCF) – дисконтированный денежный поток

discovery n – открытие; раскрытие, представление сведений, документов; обнаружение (нового факта, преступления)

discrete а – прерывистый, дискретный, разрозненный; оторванный, отвлеченный

discretion n – усмотрение, свобода действий; полномочия; осторожность, осмотрительность

discretionary a – предоставленный на усмотрение, дискреционный

disposable income – располагаемый доход

dissolution n – роспуск (компании или товарищества): юридическое прекращение деятельности компании в добровольном или принудительном порядке

dissolve v – распускать, прекращать деятельность

distribution channel – канал распределения

diverse a – разнообразный

diversity n – разнообразие (зд. рабочей силы)

divestiture n – лишение права; реализация актива путем продажи

dividend (Div) n – дивиденд

dividend yield – дивидендная доходность

division n – подразделение, деление, разделение

division of labor – разделение труда

domestic a – внутренний, национальный

double-digita – двузначный

double-entry bookkeeping – система двойной записи

Dow Jones Sustainability Index (DJSI) – индекс устойчивости Dow Jones

downgrade v – присвоить более низкий рейтинг, понижать

downsiderisk – риск падения цены или курса

downsize v – уменьшать в размерах

downsizing n – уменьшение в размерах (повышение эффективности компании за счет уменьшения числа сотрудников и продажи непрофильных предприятий)

downstream n – в нефтяном и газовом бизнесе – переработка и сбыт, в более широком смысле – дистрибуция и сбыт

downturn n – начало спада деловой активности или спада на рынке

draft n – проект, план, набросок, эскиз; чек, тратта, получение денег по чеку, отбор, призыв, вербовка

draft v – делать эскиз; составлять план, законопроект; выделять, отбирать

drive v – двигать

driver n – зд. движущая сила, двигатель

dry hole costs – затраты на безуспешные геологоразведочные работы

dual class share – «двойная акция»

due diligence – процесс должной проверки

E

Earnings before Interest and Tax (EBIT) – прибыль до уплаты процентов и налогов

Earnings before Interest, Tax, Depreciation and Amortization (EBITDA) – прибыль до уплаты процентов, налогов, амортизации материальных и нематериальных активов

E-commerce – электронная торговля

economic profit – экономическая прибыль

economic value added (EVA) – экономическая добавленная ценность

economies of scale – экономия на масштабах производства

economies of scope – экономия на масштабах маркетинга и сбыта

efficient a – эффективный

effective demand – эффективный (фактический) спрос

effectiveness n – эффективность (общая)

effective a – эффективный

efficiency n – эффективность (удельная)

efficient frontier – эффективная граница

efficient market hypothesis (ЕМН) – гипотеза эффективного рынка (гипотеза, по которой при полном доступе рынка к информации цена акции на данный момент является лучшей оценкой будущей цены)

elastic a – эластичный

elasticity n – эластичность (спроса или предложения)

Electronic Communication Network (ECN) – сеть электронных коммуникаций

embed v – вставлять, укреплять, врезаться, укладывать, внедрять, встраивать

emerge v – появляться, проявляться, возникать

emergence n – появление, возникновение

emerging market – развивающийся рынок

Emerging Markets Bond Index (EMBI) – индекс облигаций развивающихся рынков

emission n – выделение, выброс (загрязнителей), излучение

emit v – излучать, выбрасывать, извергать

emitter n – излучатель; предприятие, выбрасывающее загрязнители

employ v – нанимать

employee n – сотрудник, работник

Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOP) – поощрительные планы покупки акций компании ее сотрудниками по льготной цене

employer n – работодатель

employment n – найм, занятость

empowerment n – наделение полномочиями, властью

employment law – трудовое право

emulate v – соревноваться, состязаться, соперничать

emulation n – соревнование, состязание, соперничество

endorse v – индоссировать, делать передаточную надпись на векселе, подтверждать правильность, подписываться

endorsement n – индоссамент, одобрение, передаточная надпись на векселе, свидетельство известной личности о качестве товара

endow v – обеспечивать постоянным доходом, наделять, одаривать

endowment n – вклад, дар, пожертвование, (дарственный) фонд, дарование

enforce v – принуждать, взыскивать; приводить в исполнение, проводить в жизнь

enforceable a – осуществимый, поддающийся проведению в жизнь, обеспеченный правовой санкцией, имеющий исковую силу

enforcement n – давление, принуждение; осуществление; наблюдение за проведением в жизнь; принудительное взыскание

enforcer n – лицо, претворяющее закон в жизнь; служитель правопорядка

engineer n – инженер, конструктор

engineer v – проектировать, создавать, сооружать

engineering n – инжиниринг

engineering a – прикладной, технический, инженерный

enterprise value (EV) – ценность предприятия

entitle (to) v – давать право на что-либо

entitlement n – право на что-либо

entity n – юридическое лицо; юридическая форма организации компании

entrant n – компания, выходящая на рынок или проникающая в отрасль

entrepreneur n – предприниматель

entrepreneur-in-residence (EIR) – «домашний» предприниматель

entrepreneurial a – предпринимательский

entrepreneurship n – предпринимательство

entry n – бухгалтерская запись (проводка)

entry barriers (barriers to entry) – барьеры к выходу на рынок или в отрасль

environment n – окружающая среда (природная или деловая), обстановка

environmental consciousness – экологическая сознательность

environmentally friendly – экологически дружественный (безопасный)

Equal Credit Opportunity Act – закон о равном доступе к кредиту

equip v – оборудовать

equipment n – оборудование

equitable а – справедливый; основанный на праве справедливости, регулируемый правом справедливости

equity n – собственный капитал; обыкновенные акции; справедливость

equity research – анализ акций

equity risk premium – премия за риск, связанный с акциями

equity stake – доля в акционерном капитале

equity warrant – облигационный варрант, дающий право на покупку акций заемщика по оговоренной цене

err v – ошибаться, заблуждаться, грешить

error n – ошибка, погрешность, неправильная банковская проводка

estate n — имущество, собственность; вещно-правовой титул; сословие

estimate (E) n – оценка (в статистических таблицах)

Euro-zone – зона eвро

EV/EBITDA – отношение ценности предприятия к EBITDA

EV/Sales – отношение ценности предприятия к продажам

evergreen loan – «вечнозеленый» кредит (регулярно возобновляемая кредитная линия без требования периодического полного погашения и с фиксированным общим сроком, после чего она может быть снова возобновлена)

ex ante – ожидаемый, предполагаемый

exchange rate – обменный (валютный) курс

Exchange Traded Funds (ETF) – фонды, которыми торгуют на бирже

executive (exec) n – руководитель

executive a – исполнительный

executive authorities – исполнительная власть

executive director – исполнительный директор

executive summary – резюме

exercise n – упражнение; осуществление, использование (права), исполнение опциона

exercise v – упражняться; осуществлять, использовать (право), исполнять опцион

exit barriers (barriers to exit) – барьеры к уходу с рынка

exogenous a – экзогенный, внешний

expand v – расширять

expansion n – рост, экспансия, расширение производства, продаж и т. п.

expansionary policy – политика экономического роста

expectancy n – ожидание, вероятность

expectation n – ожидание

expect v – ожидать

expedite v – ускорять

expediting n – связь с поставщиками; время исполнения (время для розыска и выполнения потерянного или неправильно направленного заказа)

expeditor n – диспетчер, экспедитор

expend v – тратить, затрачивать, расходовать, израсходовать

expendable a – потребляемый, расходуемый; невозвратимый, одноразового применения

expenditure n – расходы, затраты, расходная часть бюджета, статья расхода

еxpense n – расходы, затраты

expensing of costs – вычитание расходов для целей налогообложения

experience curve – кривая опыта

expertise n – специальные знания, компетентность, эрудиция; экспертиза

expiration n – окончание, истечение срока

expire v – истекать (о сроке), кончаться, терять силу (о законе и т. п.)

expiry n – окончание, истечение срока

exploration and production (E&P) – геологоразведка и добыча (в нефтяной и газовой промышленности)

expose v – выставлять; подвергать риску, воздействию; сталкиваться; раскрывать, разоблачать, показывать, выставлять напоказ

exposure n – подверженность риску, риск потенциальных убытков; разоблачение; положение; незащищенность; экспозиция

externality n – внешние факторы, экстерналии

extraordinary item – экстраординарное событие (чрезвычайное обстоятельство)

F

face value – номинал

facilitate v – помогать, способствовать, облегчать (в некот. контексте давать взятки)

facilitator n – лицо, помогающее, способствующее или проталкивающее

facility n – (производственная) мощность, здание; кредитная линия, схема кредитования

factor in(to) v – встраивать, учитывать

fail v – потерпеть неудачу, провалиться, обанкротиться, отказать

failure n – неудача, провал, банкротство, отказ (в работе), повреждение, срыв, авария

fair play – честная игра, игра по правилам

Fannie Mae (Federal National Mortgage Association) – Федеральная национальная ипотечная ассоциация

favorable balance of trade – положительный (активный) торговый баланс

feasibility study – технико-экономическое обоснование

federal authorities – федеральные органы власти

federal debt – государственный долг

Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) – Федеральная корпорация страхования депозитов (США)

federal question jurisdiction – федеральная юрисдикция; практика федеральных судов (амер.)

Federal Reserve Board (FRB) – Совет управляющих ФРС (США)

feedback n – обратная связь

fiduciary (Fid) a – доверенный, порученный, фидуциарный, основанный на доверии, доверенное лицо, опекун, душеприказчик по завещанию, попечитель

file a suit – подать иск

final (end) consumer – конечный потребитель

financial accounting system – системы финансового учета

financial ratio – финансовый коэффициент

Financial Services Authority (FSA) – Агентство по финансовым услугам

financing activities – финансовая деятельность

fine n – штраф, пеня; тонкий, точный, первоклассный

fine v – взимать штраф, налагать штраф

fire v – увольнять, поджигать

first mover – первопроходец

fiscal policy – финансовая политика (бюджетная и налоговая)

fiscal year (FY) – фискальный, деловой или финансовый год

Five Cs (capacity to repay, capital, collateral, conditions, character) – пять аспектов оценки при предоставлении кредита

fixed cost – постоянные затраты

fixed income security – ценная бумага с фиксированным доходом

fixed-lifetime fund – фонд с фиксированным сроком действия

flare v – сжигать газ в факелах, гореть ярким пламенем, вспыхивать, махать

flare n – факел; сверкание, вспышка; осветительная ракета

flaring n – сжигание газа в факелах

flat a – плоский (напр. налог, структура компании); стандартный; разовый

fledgling company – только что созданная компания

float n – чеки в процессе инкассации; число акций корпорации, выпущенных на рынок; банкноты и монеты в кассе

float (a company) v – организовать новую компанию и выпустить ее акции на рынок

floor n – пол (зд. торговый зал биржи, торговые площади магазина или самый низкий уровень цен, либо процентной ставки)

floor broker – брокер в зале биржи

fluctuate v – колебаться

fluctuation n – колебание

focus n – фокус, сосредоточение, акцент

focus v – фокусироваться, сосредотачиваться, концентрироваться

footprint n – след, отпечаток

forecast (F) n – прогноз

forecast v – прогнозировать

foreign currency translation – пересчет суммы из одной валюты в другую

foreign direct investments (FDI) – иностранные прямые инвестиции

foreign exchange (forex) reserves – валютные запасы

foreign exchange market (FOREX, FX) – валютный рынок

Form 10Q – квартальный отчет корпорации, чьи акции котируются на биржах, перед Комиссией по ценным бумагам и биржам

forward integration – прямая интеграция

found v – основывать

foundation n – закладка (фундамента), фундамент, основание, обоснование, основа, фонд; пожертвованный на культурное начинание; учреждение или организация, существующая на пожертвованный фонд

founder n – основатель

framework n – рамки

fraud n – обман, мошенничество

fraudulent a – обманный, мошеннический

FreddieMac (FederalHomeLoanMortgageCorporation) – Федеральная корпорация жилищного ипотечного кредита

free float – число акций в свободном обращении на рынке

free rider – «свободный ездок», зд. действующий на халяву

free trade – свободная торговля (международная торговля, которая не регулируется тарифами, пошлинами, квотами и др. средствами государственного контроля)

free-trade zone – зона свободной торговли (зона беспошлинной внешней торговли в рамках данного государства)

Free-on-Board (FOB) – «франко-борт судна» (ФОБ)

freeze v – замораживать, блокировать, устанавливать контроль, вводить запрет

freight n – фрахт, груз

freight v – фрахтовать, грузить

fringe benefits – дополнительные льготы

front office – «франт»-офис, передний офис

front running – «опережающий бег» (незаконная практика покупки брокером ценной бумаги для себя, а затем выполнение крупного приказа клиента о покупке бумаги; биржевая практика, при которой дилер, располагающий информацией о предстоящей крупной операции, заранее заключает опционную сделку на данные бумаги для получения прибыли от изменения цен)

frontier n – граница, рубеж, новая область

fuel n – топливо

full-cost accounting – учет всех издержек производства

full-service broker – брокер полного профиля

fund n – фонд, финансовое средство, сумма денег

fund v – финансировать

fundamental n – фундаментальный (базовый) фактор

fundamental a – фундаментальный

fundamental analysis – фундаментальный анализ

fungible security – взаимозаменяемая ценная бумага

future n – фьючерсный контракт

G

gain n – повышение, рост (курса акций, цены), прибыль, доход, выгода

gain v – зарабатывать, добывать, выгадывать, выигрывать, получать, приобретать, достигать, добиваться

gainful a – доходный, прибыльный, выгодный, оплачиваемый

gap n – разрыв, пробел

gearing n – отношение заемного капитала к собственному

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) – Генеральное соглашение о тарифах и торговле (ГАТТ)

General Obligation (GO) bond – облигация общих обязательств

Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) – общепринятые стандарты бухгалтерского учета

generate profit – генерировать прибыль

generic a – родовой, общий, характерный для определенного рода или группы

gilts n, pl (gilt-edged securities) – ценные бумаги «с золотым обрезом» (первоклассные, самые надежные облигации)

Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) – глобальная инициатива по отчетности

global village – «глобальная деревня»

globalization n – глобализация

going-rate pricing – ценообразование с учетом текущего уровня цен

gold standard – золотой стандарт

golden parachute – «золотой парашют» (в случае попытки враждебного поглощения менеджеры корпорации заключают с ней соглашение, по которому они должны будут при увольнении получить крупные суммы или опционы на акции)

goods n – товар, изделие (в основном продукты производства)

goodwill – добрая воля, деловая репутация, «гудвилл» (бухг.)

government authorities – правительство

government bond – правительственная облигация

government (public) finances – государственные финансы

Government Sponsored Enterprise (GSE) – предприятия, созданные при поддержке правительства

Great Depression – Великая депрессия

green economics – зеленая (экологически ориентированная) экономика

greenfield n – новое предприятие, дочерняя компания, создаваемые с нуля; освоение новых территорий

greenhouse gas (GHG) – парниковые газы

greenmail – корпоративный шантаж (покупка акций компании с целью вынудить ее выкупить свои акции по новой цене)

Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) – среднее время по гринвичскому меридиану

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) – валовой внутренний продукт (ВВП)

Gross National Product (GNP) – валовой национальный продукт (ВНП)

gross profit margin – маржа валовой прибыли

gun jumping – нарываться (торговля ценными бумагами на основе еще не обнародованной информации; незаконное принятие брокером приказов на покупку новых, еще не зарегистрированных ценных бумаг)

H

handling costs – затраты на обработку

hard currency – твердая валюта; валюта, пользующаяся доверием; конвертируемая валюта

harvest v – собирать урожай

harvest n – урожай, уборка урожая

harvesting n – уборка урожая

headhunter n – специалист по подбору кадров

headquarters n – штаб-квартира

Health, Safety and Environmental (HSE) standards – стандарты по здравоохранению, безопасности и экологии

hedge n – хедж, хеджирование

hedge v – хеджировать

high-end a – дорогой, высокого класса

high-grade a – высокого уровня, высокого качества

high-grade bond – облигация с высоким рейтингом

high-yield bond – высокодоходная облигация

highlight n – центр внимания, основной момент

highlight v – освещать, выдвигать на первый план

hire v – нанимать

historical cost – историческая стоимость (фактическая стоимость приобретения актива)

Hold – рекомендация «держать»

holding n – капиталовложение, участие в капитале компании, владение, холдинг

holding a – холдинговый

horizontal FDI – горизонтальные прямые иностранные инвестиции

host country – принимающая страна

hot money – горячие деньги (краткосрочные потоки капитала, обусловленные стремлением воспользоваться более высокими процентными ставками или арбитражной возможностью, «бегство капитала»)

household n – семья, домашнее хозяйство

human relations – отношения с сотрудниками

Human Resource Management (HRM) – управление трудовыми ресурсами

hurdle price – «пороговая» цена

I

impair v – обесценивать, снижать стоимость, ухудшать

impairment n – обесценение, снижение стоимости

implement v – претворять в жизнь

implementation n – претворение в жизнь

implicate v – вовлекать, вмешивать, подразумевать

implication n – вовлечение, причастность; значение, последствия

import quota – импортная квота

in the black – без убытков

in the red – с убытком

incentive n – стимул

income statement – отчет о прибылях и убытках

incorporate v – создать и зарегистрировать корпорацию; включать; придавать юридический статус

incorporation n – инкорпорация: процесс регистрации юридического лица в качестве корпорации властями данного штата (США)

increment n – увеличение, прирост, приращение

incremental a – увеличивающийся, прирастающий, приростный

incur losses – нести убытки

individual income tax – подоходный налог на физических лиц

industry n – промышленность, индустрия, отрасль промышленности

industrial a – промышленный, производственный, промышленная корпорация (США): любая корпорация, которая не может быть отнесена к коммунальным, финансовым или транспортным компаниям

industrial order – промышленный заказ

industrial policy – промышленная политика

inelastic a – неэластичный

inelasticity n – неэластичность (спроса или предложения)

infant industry – «молодая» отрасль экономики

inflation risk – инфляционный риск

information asymmetry – информационная асимметрия

inherent a – внутренний, внутренне присущий

initial public offering (IPO) – первоначальное публичное предложение акций

injunction n – судебный запрет; запретительная норма

innovate v – вводить новшества, делать нововведения

innovation n – инновация, нововведение, новаторство

innovative a – новаторский

innovator n – новатор, рационализатор

In personam – в отношении конкретного лица; носящий обязательственный характер (лат.)

input n – потребляемые ингредиенты; вход, ввод, вход, вклад

In Rem – в отношении самой вещи; вещный, абсолютный (лат.)

insider trading – внутренняя (инсайдерская) торговля

insolvency n – неплатежеспособность

insolvent a – неплатежеспособный

installment loan – кредит с погашением в рассрочку

institutional investors – институциональные инвесторы

intangible a – нематериальный, неосязаемый

integral a – целостный, полный

integrity n – целостность, полнота, порядочность

intellectual property – интеллектуальная собственность

interbank foreign exchange market – межбанковский валютный рынок

interest group – группа, действующая в интересах определенных кругов

interest payments – процентные платежи

interest rate – процентная ставка

interest rate risk – процентный риск

intermediary n – посредник

International Accounting Standards (IAS) – международные стандарты финансовой отчетности (МСФО)

international aid – международная помощь

International Financial Corporation (IFC) – Международная финансовая корпорация (МФК)

International Monetary Fund (IMF) – Международный валютный фонд (МВФ)

International Securities Identification Numbers (ISIN) – международные идентификационные номера ценных бумаг

International Securities Market Association (ISMA) – Ассоциация международного рынка ценных бумаг

intervene v – вмешиваться

interventionist a – интервенционистский

interventionism n – интервенционизм

intervention n – интервенция, вмешательство

in-the-money option – опцион «в деньгах»

intrinsic a – внутренний

inventory n – запасы

inventory building – наращивание запасов

inventory period – средний срок реализации запасов

inverse correlation – обратная корреляция

investing activities – инвестиционная деятельность

invest v – инвестировать

investment n – инвестиция, капиталовложение

investment attractiveness – инвестиционная привлекательность

investment bank – инвестиционный банк

investment fund – инвестиционный фонд

investor n – инвестор

investor relations – отношения с инвесторами, работа с инвесторами

investor relations department – департамент по отношениям с инвесторами

investment universe n – инвестиционная вселенная

investment-grade credit rating – кредитный рейтинг инвестиционного уровня

investment community – инвестиционное сообщество

invoice n – счет-фактура

invoice v – выставлять счет-фактуру

issuance n – эмиссия

issue v – выпускать, эмитировать

issue n – выпуск, эмиссия; вопрос

J

job n – работа, дело, труд, задание; рабочее место

job evaluation – оценка результатов работы сотрудника

job security – надежная занятость

joint and several liability – солидарная и индивидуальная ответственность

joint venture (JV) – совместное предприятие

judge n — судья

judgment n – судебное решение, приговор; суждение, мнение, оценка

judicial authorities – судебная власть

Jumbo CD – крупный депозитный сертификат

juristic person – юридическое лицо

just-in-time (JIT) – система «точно в срок»

K

keep a position – держать позицию

key performance indicators (KPI) – ключевые показатели деятельности

kickback n – «откат»

kicker n – «завлекалочка» (дополнительное условие, повышающее привлекательность для инвестора)

killer bees – «пчелы-убийцы» (специалисты, помогающие компании защититься от попыток враждебного поглощения)

know-how n – ноу-хау

L

label n – ярлык, наклейка, этикетка, бирка, марка

label v – наклеивать этикетку или ярлык, маркировать

labeling n – классификация, наклеивание этикетки или ярлыка, маркирование

labor intensity – трудоемкость

labor intensive – трудоемкий

labour law – трудовое право

laddered portfolio – портфель-лестница

lag n – отставание, запаздывание

lag v – отставать, запаздывать

lagging a – отстающий

laissez faire – экономическая доктрина, проповедующая минимальное вмешательство государства в экономику

launch n – запуск (продукции, проекта)

launch v – запускать

law of contract – договорное право; договорно-обязательственное право

lawsuit n – судебное дело, иск, тяжба, правовой спор, судебное разбирательство, судебный процесс

lay off v – увольнять сотрудников

layoff n – увольнение сотрудников в связи с сокращением производства и спроса на продукцию

lay out v – располагать, размещать, выделять средства

layout n – схема расположения, компоновка, планировка, чертеж

lead manager – лид-менеджер (ведущий менеджер: банк, являющийся главным организатором и гарантом займа)

lead time – время между размещением заказа и получением материалов от поставщика; время между началом производственного процесса и изготовлением первого изделия или всей партии

lean manufacturing – рациональное производство

learning curve – кривая освоения

lease n – аренда

lease v – арендовать

legacy n – наследство, наследие

legal person – юридическое лицо

legal personality – правосубъектность

legislative authorities – законодательная власть

legislature n – законодательная власть, законодательный орган

legitimacy n – законность; закономерность; законнорожденность

legitimate a – законный, допустимый, оправданный; законнорожденный

lend v – одалживать, давать взаймы

lender n – кредитор, заимодавец

lever n – рычаг

leverage n – леверидж (финансовый), рычаг

leverage v – использовать как рычаг или двигатель, использовать как средство достижения цели

leveraged buyout (LBO) – рычаговый выкуп (выкуп в кредит)

levy n – налог, сбор, взнос; арест собственности по судебному приказу

levy v – взимать, собирать (налог)

liability n – обязательство, задолженность, пассив

license n – лицензия

license v – разрешать, давать разрешение, выдавать лицензию

licensee n – лицензиат

licensing n – лицензирование

licensing authorities – орган по выдаче лицензий

licensor n – лицензиар

life cycle – жизненный цикл

life expectancy – продолжительность жизни

limit order – лимитная (ограниченная) заявка

liquidation value – ликвидационная ценность

liquidity risk – риск ликвидности

liquidity trap – «ликвидная ловушка» (нечувствительность процентной ставки к изменениям денежной массы)

list n – список

list v – внести в листинг, перечислять

listing n – листинг (котировка на бирже)

literacy n – грамотность

literate a – грамотный

litigant n – истец или ответчик в судебном процессе

litigate v – судиться, оспаривать на суде

litigation n – судебный процесс, судебное дело, тяжба

load n – груз, бремя, нагрузка, загрузка

load v – грузить, нагружать, заряжать, обременять

loan n – заем

lobster trap – «ловушка для лобстеров» (средство защиты от враждебного поглощения, при которой защищающаяся компания вносит в устав условие, запрещающее лицам, владеющим более 10% конвертируемых долговых инструментов, конвертировать их в голосующие акции)

local authorities – местные органы власти

local content – использование местной рабочей силы и оборудования

lock in v – зафиксировать, законтрактовать

logistics n – логистика, материально-техническое снабжение

London Stock Exchange (LSE) – Лондонская фондовая биржа

longevity n – долголетие

long-term (fixed) assets – долгосрочные (внеоборотные) активы

loss-making – убыточный

low end a – недорогой, относительно более низкого класса

lubricant n – смазочное вещество

lump sum – одна сумма

M

Maastricht Treaty – Маастрихтский договор (договор стран ЕС об углублении политической и экономической интеграции, включая единую валюту и Европейский центральный банк)

macro level – макроуровень

magnitude n – величина, размеры; важность, значимость

maiden – компания, являющаяся объектом поглощения

mainstream n – находящийся в основном русле развития

maintain v – поддерживать в рабочем состоянии, ремонтировать

maintenance n – поддержание в рабочем состоянии; ремонт; эксплуатационные расходы

maintenance requirements – минимальный уровень средств, который должен поддерживаться на маргинальном счете клиента у брокера

major n – зд. крупная международная нефтяная компания

majority shareholder – основной акционер

make-or-buy decision – решение производить или покупать

malfeasance n – неправомерное действие, должностное преступление

malpractice n – противозаконное действие, злоупотребление доверием, преступная небрежность

mandate n – мандат, наказ, доверенность, поручение

mandate v – передавать под мандат, обязывать

mandatory a – обязательный, принудительный, мандатный

manufacture v – производить, изготавливать, выпускать, перерабатывать (сырье)

manufacturer n – производитель, изготовитель, промышленник

manufacturing a – промышленный, производственный

Manufacturing Resource Planning – планирование производственных ресурсов

margin n – маржа

margin deposit – маргинальный депозит

marginal a – маргинальный

marginal (leverage) trading – торговля без внесения всей суммы сделки

market capitalization (cap) – рыночная капитализация

market entry – выход на рынок

market equilibrium – рыночное равновесие

market maker – «делатель рынка»: участник финансового рынка, который постоянно котирует цены покупателя и продавца и вступает по ним в сделки по финансовым инструментам за свой счет или счет своих клиентов

market manipulation – манипулирование рынком

market risk – рыночный риск

market value – рыночная ценность

marketable security – рыночная (легко реализуемая) ценная бумага

marketing mix – маркетинговая смесь

mark-to-market – переоценка в соответствии с рыночной конъюнктурой, ежедневная переоценка биржевых позиций для учета изменения цен, переоценка портфеля ценных бумаг на основе текущих цен, ежедневная переоценка чистых активов

markup pricing – ценообразование с надбавкой к себестоимости товара

Master Production Scheduling – главный план-график производства

material a – зд. существенный

Material Requirements Planning – планирование потребности в материалах

mature v – зреть, погашаться

mature a – зрелый; подлежащий оплате ввиду наступившего срока погашения

maturity n – зрелость; срок погашения (ценной бумаги), срок кредита

maverick n – диссидент, отступник; резко отклоняющееся значение (на графике)

mean n – среднее значение, середина

measure n – мера, система измерений, единица измерения, мерка, размер; степень; предел мероприятие

measure v – измерять, мерить, отмерять, иметь размер, сравнивать

mediate v – посредничать, ходатайствовать

mediation n – посредничество, ходатайство, вмешательство с целью примирения

mediator n – посредник, ходатай

medical insurance – медицинское страхование

Medicare – государственная программа бесплатной медицинской помощи престарелым

medium n – средство, способ

mentor n – ментор, наставник

merchandise n – товары, торгуемые в розницу

merchandise (commodity) trade balance – баланс товарной торговли

merchant bank – торговый банк (Великобритания, сходен с инвестиционным банком по функциям)

merge v – сливаться

merger n – слияние

Mergers and Acquisitions (M&A) – слияния и поглощения

metric n – мера, мерило

metric a – метрический

mezzanine financing – промежуточное финансирование

micro level – микроуровень

middle office – средний офис

middleman n – посредник

midlevel manager – менеджер среднего звена

Minimum Efficient Scale (MES) – минимальный эффективный уровень

minority interest – доля меньшинства

miscellaneous a – разнообразный, сборный

mission statement – декларация миссии компании

misstatement n – неверное, ложное утверждение

mistrial n – неправильное судебное разбирательство

mitigate v – смягчать, уменьшать

mitigation n – смягчение, уменьшение

Modern Portfolio Theory (MPT) – современная теория портфеля

momentum n – импульс, движущая сила, толчок, темп

monetary authorities – руководящие денежно-кредитные учреждения

monetary policy – денежно-кредитная и в некоторых случаях валютная политика

money management – управление деньгами

monopsony n – монопсония (монополия покупателей)

monopsonic a – монопсонический

moral hazard – моральный риск (риск того, что действия по ослаблению последствий рискованных действий повысят вероятность таких событий)

morale n – моральное состояние, боевой дух

Morgan Stanley Capital International (MSCI) – Международные индексы капитала банка Морган Стэнли

mortal a – смертный; смертельный; жестокий

mortality n – смертность

mortgage (Mort) n – ипотека, закладная, ипотечный кредит

mortgage v – закладывать

mortgage-backed securities (mortgages) – ценные бумаги, обеспеченные ипотекой

motion n – предложение; ходатайство (в суде)

multinational company (MNC) – многонациональная компания (МНК)

multiple n – множитель

multiplier n – мультипликатор

multiplier a – мультипликативный

municipal authorities – муниципальные власти

municipal bond – муниципальная облигация

municipality n – муниципалитет

mutual fund – взаимный фонд

N

Nance Reagan defense – «защита Нэнси Рейган» (когда совет директоров компании, являющейся объектом поглощения, собирается для рассмотрения предложения о поглощении, они просто говорят «нет»)

National Association of Securities Dealers Automated Quotations (NASDAQ) – Автоматизированные котировки Национальной ассоциации дилеров по ценным бумагам (НАСДАК)

natural capital – природный капитал

negative (unfavorable) balance of trade – отрицательный (пассивный) торговый баланс

negotiate v – вести переговоры

negotiation n – переговоры

negotiator n – переговорщик

nest eggs – деньги, откладываемые на «черный» день, для получения дохода после выхода на пенсию или для крупной покупки

net a – чистый, нетто

net margin – чистая маржа

Net Present Value (NPV) – чистая приведенная ценность

net worth – чистая ценность

net out v – вычитать, определять нетто-позицию

New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) – Нью-Йоркская фондовая биржа

nominal wage – номинальная зарплата

nominate v – предлагать кандидата, назначать на должность

nomination n – номинация, выставление, выдвижение кандидата, назначение на должность,

nominee n – кандидат; лицо, выдвинутое на должность; получатель чего-либо по доверенности

non-fungible security – невзаимозаменяемая ценная бумага

non-governmental organization (NGO) – неправительственная организация

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) – Североамериканское соглашение о свободной торговле (договор между Канадой, США и Мексикой об отмене ограничений во взаимной торговле)

not available (n/a) – нет данных (обычно употребляется в таблицах)

note n – краткосрочная ценная бумага, долговое обязательство, банкнота, письменное обязательство выплатить определенную сумму на оговоренных условиях

not-for-profit organization – некоммерческая организация

O

obligation n – обязательство, обязанность, долг

oblige v – обязывать, принуждать; делать одолжение

obsolescence n – устаревание, износ

obsolete a – устаревший

occupational safety – производственная безопасность

off-balance-sheet – забалансовый

offense n – посягательство; правонарушение; преступление

offender n – правонарушитель, преступник

offend v – оскорблять; нарушать, посягать

offer (ask) price – цена предложения (продажи)

official reserve assets – официальные резервные активы

offset n – зачет, компенсация, возмещение

offset v – зачитывать, компенсировать, возмещать

offshore n – офшор

offshore a – офшорный

offshoring n – офшорная деятельность

omission n – упущение

omit v – упускать, пропускать

one-size-fits-all – единый для всех, общий

open position – открытая позиция

operating activities – операционная деятельность

operating cash flow (OpCF) – операционный денежный поток

operating earnings – операционный доход

operating income – операционная прибыль

operating loss – операционный убыток

operating profit margin – маржа операционной прибыли

operational risk – операционный риск

opportunity n – возможность

opportunity cost – цена возможности, упущенная прибыль

option n – опцион, вариант выбора

option premium – опционная премия (сумма, уплачиваемая покупателем за опционный контракт)

optional a – не обязательный, по выбору

order n – приказ, распоряжение; заказ

order v – приказывать, распоряжаться; заказывать

ordinance n – указ, декрет

ordinary shareholder – акционер, владеющий обыкновенными акциями компании

organic growth – органический рост

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) – Организация стран – экспортеров нефти

originator n – инициатор операций, инвестиционный банк, работающий с потенциальным эмитентом с самой ранней стадии планирования займа

outcome n – результат, последствие, исход, выход

outdated a – устаревший

outlay n – расходы, ассигнования, затраты, издержки

outlook n – вид, перспектива, вид на будущее, прогноз

out-of-the-money option – опцион «без денег»

outperform v – показывать результаты деятельности выше ожидаемых или выше рынка

outperformance n – результаты деятельности выше ожидаемых или выше рынка

outperformer n – юридическое или физическое лицо, показывающее результаты деятельности выше ожидаемых или выше рынка

outplacement services – услуги по трудоустройству (помощь только что покинувшему компанию сотруднику найти новую работу)

output n – выпуск продукции, продукция, отдача, выход

outside a – внешний

outsider n – аутсайдер

outsource v – передавать какие-либо функции субподрядчикам

outsourcing n – аутсорсинг, передача каких-либо функций субподрядчикам

outstanding a – неоплаченный долг, ценные бумаги в обращении

overcapacity n – переизбыток производственных мощностей

overhead(s) n – накладные расходы

overlap v – дублировать, пересекаться, совпадать, налагаться друг на друга

overlapping a – дублирующие, пересекающиеся, совпадающие, налагающиеся друг на друга

overload n – перегрузка

overload v – форсировать режим, перегружать

overseas a – заграничный, иностранный

oversight n – надзор, присмотр; оплошность

over-the-counter (OTC) market – внебиржевой рынок ценных бумаг

overtime n – сверхурочная работа

overtrade v – чрезмерная торговля (расширение продаж компании сверх имеющегося у нее оборотного капитала, чрезмерные покупки и продажи брокером для увеличения своих комиссионных доходов)

P

Pac Man – стратегия защиты от враждебного поглощения путем ответной попытки поглотить компанию-агрессора

pace n – скорость, темп

package n – упаковка, контейнер, ящик, пакет

package v – упаковывать

packaging n – упаковка

paid-in capital – авансированный (оплаченный) капитал

par n – равенство, паритет, номинал

on (at) par – по номиналу, наравне

parent company – материнская компания

parking n – незаконная деятельность, когда инвесторы покупают и держат ценные бумаги на свое имя до тех пор, пока они не понадобятся рейдеру

pass v – принимать (закон)

passage n – зд. прохождение, принятие (закона)

pass-through securities – «пропускающие» ценные бумаги

pattern n – образец, пример, шаблон; узор, структура; модель

pay packet – заработок; фонд заработной платы

payables n., pl – кредиторская задолженность

payables period – средний срок покрытия кредиторской задолженности

pay off v – выплачивать, погашать долг, окупаться

payoff n – доходность, выплата, компенсация; развязка

payroll n – общая сумма денег, которые предприятие регулярно выплачивает сотрудникам; ведомость на получение зарплаты

peak n – пик, максимум

peak v – достичь пика, максимума

peer n – ровня, равный, сопоставимый; пэр

peer group of companies – группа равных (сопоставимых) компаний

peg n – база, ориентир, точка отсчета

peg v – привязывать, индексировать

pegging n – привязка, индексация

penetrate v – проникать

penetration n – проникновение

per capita – на душу населения

percentage point – процентный пункт

perceive v – воспринимать

perceived a – воспринимаемый

perception n – восприятие

perfect competition – совершенная конкуренция

perform v – действовать, выполнять, достигать

performance n – зд. показатели (результаты) деятельности; исполнение

perk n – привилегия, льгота, скидка

perpetuity n – бессрочное владение, пожизненная рента

personal jurisdiction – персональная юрисдикция

perspective v – перспектива, вид, вид на будущее; угол зрения

PEST (Political, Economic, Social, Technological) analysis – анализ политических, экономических, социальных и технологических факторов

picking winners – выбор победителей (выбор компаний с большим потенциалом развития как объекта капиталовложений)

pilot program – пилотная программа

pink sheets – список акций и их цен на внебиржевом рынке

pioneer n – первопроходец

pioneer v – прокладывать путь, вести

pip n – «пип» (минимальное изменение курса)

pitch n – зд. реклама

pitch v – излагать, рекламировать

place stops – отдавать приказ «стоп»

plea n – заявление оснований иска или обвинения или оснований защиты против иска или обвинения; аргумент; заявление, сделанное ответчиком или защитой или от имени ответчика или защиты; извинение, оправдание; иск

plaintiff n – истец

pledge n – залог, обеспечение, заклад; дар; обет, обещание

pledge v – закладывать; связывать обещанием, заверять

poison pill – «отравленная таблетка» (методы по борьбе с враждебным поглощением, например, обязательства, которые могут сделать эту операцию слишком дорогостоящей)

policymaker n – лицо, разрабатывающее или претворяющее в жизнь политику

political risk – политический риск

pollute v – загрязнять

pollutant n – загрязняющее вещество

polluter n – загрязнитель

pollution n – загрязнение (окружающей среды)

portfolio n – портфель

portfolio a – портфельный

portfolio investor – портфельный инвестор

portfolio investment – портфельная инвестиция

portfolio management – управление портфелем

position v – позиционировать

position trade – позиционная торговля на срочных рынках

positioning n – позиционирование

post v – переносить записи (проводки) (бухг.)

post-judgment a – послесудебный

powerhouse n – электростанция; очень энергичный человек; мощная и динамичная компания

precaution n – предосторожность, предусмотрительность, мера предосторожности

precautionary а – предупреждающий; принимаемый для предосторожности

precedence n – старшинство, ранг, приоритет, прецедент

precedent n – прецедент

predator n – хищник

predatory a – хищный, грабительский

pre-empt v – покупать раньше других, приобретать преимущественное право, осуществлять преимущественное право

pre-emption n – покупка прежде других; преимущественное право на покупку

pre-emptive a – преимущественное (право)

preference share – привилегированная акция

preferentialterms – предпочтительные, наиболее благоприятные условия

preferred stock – привилегированные акции

premium (Pm, Prem) n – премия, маржа (надбавка к цене, курсу; разница между более высоким срочным и наличным валютным курсом; ажио; цена опциона; страховая премия; платеж по рентному контракту; льгота для привлечения вкладчиков или покупателей; надбавка к рыночной цене; разница в цене между данной ценной бумагой и сходной бумагой или индексом; новая ценная бумага, продающаяся с премией)

premium price – цена с премией

prepaid expense – расход будущих периодов (заранее оплаченный расход)

present value – приведенная ценность

pre-trial a – досудебный

price elasticity – эластичность по ценам

price risk – ценовой риск

price/earnings (P/E) – отношение цены акции к прибыли

price/quality ratio – соотношение цена/качество

pricing n – ценообразование

primary market – первичный рынок

primary share – первичная акция (только что выпущенная и впервые предлагающаяся к продаже)

principal n – номинальная или основная сумма кредита, займа или депозита; принципал; партнер фирмы

private banking – частные банковские услуги

private (natural) person – физическое лицо

private placement – частное размещение

privately held company – частная компания

privatize v – приватизировать

privatization n – приватизация

pro forma – гипотетический

proactive a – предвосхищающий события

proactively (adv.) – предвосхищая события

procedural law – процессуальное право

procure v – доставать, добывать, приобретать, закупать, снабжать

procurement n – закупки, приобретение; материально-техническое обеспечение; контракт на поставку

product life-cycle – жизненный цикл товара

profile n – профиль, очертание; краткий очерк, краткое описание

profit and loss (P&L) statement – отчет о прибылях и убытках

profit-sharing programs – программы участия в прибылях

program management – программное управление

projection n – проектировка, оценка будущего уровня (цены или другого показателя)

promote v – продвигать

promotion n – продвижение (по службе или товара)

propensity n – склонность

property, plant and equipment (PPE) – основные средства

proprietor n – собственник, владелец

proprietary a – собственнический, составляющий собственность

prospect n – вид; потенциальный клиент; перспектива, будущее

prospect v – исследовать, разведывать, искать (клиентов, полезные ископаемые)

prospecting n – поисковые работы (горн.)

prospective а – будущий, предполагаемый, ожидаемый

prospectus n – проспект эмиссии

prosper v – процветать

prosperity n – процветание

prosperous a – процветающий

protectionism n – протекционизм (использование таможенной тарифной и нетарифной политики для защиты национальной экономики или получения для нее односторонних преимуществ в сфере международной конкуренции)

protectionist a – протекционистский

protective tariff – протекционистский тариф (таможенный тариф для защиты национальных производителей от иностранной конкуренции)

provision n – снабжение, обеспечение, резерв, запас; положение, условие

proxy n – доверенность; лицо, уполномоченное выступать за другого по доверенности; ориентир

public authorities – государственная власть

public company – публичная компания

public goods – товары и услуги, которые служат пользе всех и являются общедоступными

public sector – государственный сектор

public stock – акция публичной компании

purchasing power – покупательная способность

pure competition – чистая конкуренция

pure play – «чистая игра» (компания, занимающаяся почти исключительно одним видом деятельности)

Q

quality circles – кружки качества

quarter (Q) n – квартал

quarterly a – квартальный

quasi – якобы, почти, квази-, полу-; кажущийся, подобный

quick ratio (acid test) – коэффициент быстрой ликвидности

quiet period – «тихий» период (период до и некоторое время после регистрации эмиссии, когда запрещено заниматься ее рекламой)

quote n – котировка

quote v – котировать

R

raider n – налетчик, рейдер (лицо, начинающее агрессивно скупать акции компании с целью получения контрольного пакета)

raid n – налет

raise money (capital, funds) – привлекать деньги (капитал, средства)

rally n – значительное повышение курса ценных бумаг или товарных цен после снижения; восстановление уровня экономической активности после спада

rally v – повышаться, восстанавливаться после спада или снижения

rank n – ряд, порядок; звание, чин, должность, ранг

ranking n – расположение, расстановка, ранжирование

rate of return – ставка доходности

ratio analysis – анализ коэффициентов

rationale n – логическое обоснование; основная причина, подоплека

raw materials – сырье

reach n – зд. охват

real estate – недвижимость

real wage – реальный уровень зарплаты (зарплата с поправкой на инфляцию)

rebound n – отскок, отдача, реакция; восстановление

rebound v – отскакивать, иметь обратное действие; воспрянуть, оживиться

recall n – призыв ранее уволенных работников вернуться на работу; отзыв товара (по качеству)

recall v – призывать, отзывать

recap (recapitulation) – краткое повторение, суммирование

receipt(s) n – расписка; денежные поступления, платежи

receivables n – дебиторская задолженность

recession n – рецессия, снижение уровня деловой активности

recipient country – принимающая страна

reconcile v – урегулировать, приводить в соответствие, согласовывать

reconciliation (reconcilement) n – урегулирование, приведение в соответствие, согласование

recover v – оживляться; получать обратно; выздоравливать, наверстывать, возмещать, выправляться, излечивать; собирать, взыскивать; выигрывать (дело)

recoverable a – возместимый, поправимый, излечимый; извлекаемый (о запасах)

recovery n – подъем экономической активности после рецессии; амортизация издержек, возмещение; взыскание; остаточная стоимость фиксированного актива после амортизации; повышение курса (валюты или ценных бумаг); оживление

recruit v – набирать кадры

recruiter n – агент по набору кадров

recruitment n – набор кадров, комплектование личным составом

recycle v – рециклировать

recycling n – рециклирование

red herring – предварительный вариант проспекта эмиссии до регистрации в Комиссии по ценным бумагам и биржам США

red tape – бюрократизм

redeem v – погашать

redeemable a – погашаемый

redemption (Red) n – погашение, выкуп

redundancy n – увольнение работника в связи с сокращением рабочих мест

redundant a – уволенный (работник)

reference n – ссылка; справочник; упоминание; рекомендация; отношение; полномочие

refine v – очищать, рафинировать, перерабатывать (нефть), облагораживать; вдаваться в тонкости; вносить улучшение

refinery n – нефтеперерабатывающий завод; сахарорафинадный завод; аффина-жный завод

reformation n – внесение исправления

refugee n – беженец

refurbish v – переоборудовать, переоснастить

regional authorities – региональные власти

registered security – именная ценная бумага

registrar n – реестродержатель

regulate v – регулировать

regulation n – регулирование, правило

regulator n – регулирующий орган, орган надзора

regulatory a – регулирующий

regulatory authorities – регулирующие органы

reinvestment risk – риск реинвестирования

relocate v – перемещать, передислоцировать

relocation n – перемещение, передислокация (рабочей силы или производства)

remedial a – исправительный, лечебный, ремонтный; являющийся средством судебной защиты

remediate v – исправлять, лечить, восстанавливать

remediation n – исправление, лечение, восстановление

remedy n – средство судебной защиты

remit v – переводить, отправлять деньги

remittance (Rem) n – денежный перевод, платеж

remunerate v – вознаграждать, оплачивать труд

remuneration n – вознаграждение, оплата труда, зарплата

renewable a – возобновляемый (ресурс)

rep (representative) – представитель (амер. жаргон)

repackaging n – «переупаковка» (разделение ценной бумаги на элементы для продажи в качестве самостоятельных финансовых инструментов)

repackage v – «переупаковывать»

repay v – выплачивать, возвращать, погашать

repayment n – выплата, возврат, погашение

repeal v – аннулирование, отмена

replacement value – цена замещения

report n – отчет, доклад; подотчетное лицо

report v – отчитываться, докладывать; быть подотчетным

research and development (R&D) – исследования и разработки

reserve position – сальдо резервов

resign v – отказываться от должности, слагать обязанности, уходить в отставку

resignation n – уход в отставку, отставка

resolution n – выражение желания или намерения что-то сделать, резолюция или решение, разрешение спора

respondent n – респондент, ответчик (в суде, в ходе опроса или переписи населения)

restitution n – восстановление первоначального положения

restructure v – реструктуризировать

restructuring n – реструктуризация (кредита или компании), пересмотр сроков выплаты долга

retail n – розничная торговля

retail outlet – точка розничной торговли

retailer n – розничный торговец

retaliatory action – ответное действие

retain v – удерживать, задерживать, сохранять

retained a – удержанная, нераспределенная (прибыль)

retention n – удержание, задержание, сохранение

retool v – переоборудовать, оснащать новой техникой

return n – возврат, доходность; налоговая декларация

Return on Assets (ROA) – доходность активов

Return on Capital Employed (ROCE) – доходность примененного капитала

Return on Equity (ROE) – доходность собственного капитала

Return on Invested Capital (ROIC) – доходность инвестированного капитала

Return on Investment (ROI) – доходность инвестиций

revamp v – переоборудовать, переделывать, обновлять

revenue(s) n – выручка, доходы

revenue bond – доходная облигация

revolving loan – возобновляемый (револьверный) кредит

reward n – вознаграждение

reward v – вознаграждать

right of first refusal – право первого отказа

risk premium – премия за риск

risk sharing – разделение риска

risk taker – идущий на риск инвестор

risk-adjusted – скорректированный на риск

risk-averse a – не расположенный к риску

risk-free – безрисковый

risk-free rate – безрисковая ставка

risk-tolerant investor – инвестор, приемлющий риск

rival n – соперник, конкурент

rival a – соперничающий, конкурирующий

rival v – соперничать, конкурировать

rivalry n – соперничество, конкуренция

road show – презентация компании или эмиссии ценных бумаг, которая устраивается компанией и ее инвестиционными советниками в основных финансовых центрах

round turn basis – комиссия за две стороны сделки; разовая комиссия брокеру при ликвидации срочной позиции; завершенная фьючерская операция

rule of thumb – эмпирическое правило, практический метод

rumor n – слух; непроверенная информация, которая может повлиять на рынок

run v – управлять компанией

running n – зд. управление компанией

Russian Accounting Standards (RAS) – российские стандарты бухучета (РСБУ)

Russian Trading System (RTS) – Российская торговая система (РТС)

S

S&P 500 index – индекс 500 акций «Стэндард-энд-Пурс»

safe haven – «безопасная гавань» (защита от поглощения, когда компания приобретает непривлекательную фирму, например, жестко регулируемую правительством, чтобы сделать свое поглощение другими сторонами невыгодным)

sale n, часто в pl – продажа, распродажа; стоимость продаж товаров компании за определенный период (бухг.)

sales force – сбытовики

sales revenues – выручка от продаж

salesperson (salesman) n – сбытовик, специалист по продажам

sample n – образец (товара), выборка, проба (напр. грунта)

sample v – пробовать, испытывать, отбирать образцы или пробы

save v – зд. сберегать

saving n – зд. сбережение

savings plans – планы сбережений

scale n – масштаб, размах, охват, шкала, уровень

scarce a – дефицитные, редкие (ресурсы)

scarcity n – нехватка, недостаток, дефицит (товаров)

scenario n – сценарий

schedule n – опись, список, перечень, расписание, таблица, график

schedule v – составлять список, включать в расписание, назначать, намечать, планировать

scheme n – план, программа, схема, диаграмма, структура

scholarship n – стипендия

scope n – пределы, границы, рамки, масштаб, размах

scorched earth policy – «выжженная земля» (тактика защиты компании от поглощения, которая может включать продажу наиболее привлекательных дочерних компаний или реструктуризацию долга так, чтобы срок погашения наступал сразу после поглощения)

score n – счет, задолженность, долг; причина, основание; количество набранных очков; удача; истинные факты

score v – подсчитывать очки, вести счет; выигрывать, получать преимущество

seasonal commercial loan – сезонный коммерческий кредит

second (third) tier company – компания второго (третьего) эшелона

secondary market – вторичный рынок

secondary share – вторичная акция (повторный выпуск)

securities n, pl – ценные бумаги

Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) – Комиссия по ценным бумагам и биржам

securitization n – «секьюритизация» (повышение роли различных ценных бумаг как форм заимствования по сравнению с банковскими кредитами; трансформация банковских кредитов в ценные бумаги; стирание различий между рынками банковских кредитов и ценных бумаг)

security interest – право на обеспечение

seed capital – рисковое финансирование на самой ранней стадии осуществления проекта

self-fulfilling prophecy – самореализующееся предсказание

Sell – «продавать» (инвестиционная рекомендация)

sell side – организации, занимающиеся продажей ценных бумаг (напр. инвестиционные банки, брокерские компании)

sellingprice – продажная цена

selling, general and administrative (SG&A) expenses – торговые, общие и административные расходы

sensitivity n – чувствительность

sensitive a – чувствительный

sensitivity analysis – анализ чувствительности

Separate Trading of Registered Interest and Principal of Securities (STRIPS) – раздельная торговля основной суммой и купонами казначейских облигаций

service v debt – обслуживать долг

set n – комплект, набор, коллекция, серия, ряд, состав; компания, круг, партия, множество; строение, конфигурация; тенденция

set v – ставить, помещать, поставить; располагаться; сажать, надевать, вставлять, направлять; приготавливать, устанавливать, определять, назначать; ставить (задачу), подавать (пример), вводить, внедрять (модель)

set-up n – установка, наладка, система

set up v – устанавливать, налаживать

shakeout n – встряска (существенное изменение в рыночных условиях)

shareholder n – акционер

shareholder equity (SE) – ценность компании для акционеров: все активы минус все обязательства компании

shareholder value – ценность для акционеров

shareholders’ wealth – богатство акционеров

shark repellents – меры по защите компании от враждебного поглощения, в том числе через внесение изменений в устав

shield n – щит (напр. налоговый), защита

shield v – защищать, прикрывать, спасать, предотвращать

shift n – смена, часы работы; сдвиг, перемещение; средство

shift v – сдвигаться, перемещаться, менять, изменять, убирать

ship v – отгружать, отправлять

shipment n – отгрузка, отправка

Shippers’ Export Declaration (SED) – экспортная декларация

short selling – «короткая» продажа

short-term (current) assets – текущие (краткосрочные) активы

short-term loan – краткосрочный кредит

showroom n – демонстрационный зал

sick leave – бюллетень

site n – место, участок земли, производственная или строительная площадка

skill n – навык

skilled a – квалифицированный (рабочий)

skimming prices – цены, «снимающие сливки»

slack n – зазор, люфт, спад (деловой активности), простой, наличие избыточных производственных мощностей, резерв

slack a – застойный, вялый, бездействующий

slogan – лозунг, призыв, девиз

sluggish a – застойный, вялый

slump n – краткосрочное падение экономической активности или цены конкретной ценной бумаги

slump v – снижаться, падать (об экономической активности или цене ценной бумаги)

Small Business Administration (SBA) – Администрация по делам малого бизнеса (США)

Small Business Investment Company (SBIC) – инвестиционная компания для малого бизнеса (США)

small capitalization (cap) – компания, которая по уровню капитализации на данном рынке считается малой

smuggle v – заниматься контрабандой

smuggler n – контрабандист

smuggling n – контрабанда

social capital – социальный капитал

social security tax – налог на социальную защиту

Socially Responsible Investments (SRI) – социально ответственные инвестиции

sole proprietorship – единоличное владение

solicit v – ходатайствовать, просить, навязывать (товар, услуги)

solicitor n – адвокат, поверенный

sophisticated a – искушенный, изощренный, сложный

sophistication n – искушенность, изощренность, сложность

special purpose vehicle (SPV) – компания специального назначения

specie n – золотые и серебряные монеты или слитки

specific a – специфический, удельный, особый, характерный, конкретный, определенный

speculate v – спекулировать, играть на бирже

speculative a – спекулятивный

speculator n – спекулянт, игрок на бирже

spin-off n – отпочкование, отделение (создание самостоятельной компании на основе части производства существующей компании)

spin off v – отпочковываться, отделяться

spread n – спрэд

staff n – штат, персонал

stake n – участие в капитале, ставка, заклад

stakeholder n – заинтересованное лицо

stand-alone value – ценность отдельно взятого подразделения в рамках компании

Standard & Poor’s (S&P) – «Стэндард-энд-Пурс» (США): ведущая фирма по финансовому консультированию и установлению кредитного рейтинга ценных бумаг

standard deviation – стандартное отклонение

Standard Industry Classification (SIC) – стандартная промышленная классификация

start-up n – создание новой компании; вновь созданная компания; самая ранняя стадия финансирования новой компании; время, необходимое для начала производства и доведения до оптимального уровня после заключения контракта

start up v – создавать новую компанию

startup a – только что созданный

startup costs – начальные затраты

statement of changes in common stockholders’ equity – отчет о движении капитала акционеров

state-of-the-art – самый современный на настоящий момент

state-owned – государственный

statistical discrepancy – статистическое расхождение

statute n – статут (международный коллективный акт конституционного характера; закон, законодательный акт; устав)

statutory a – действующий в силу закона, основанный на законе, предусмотренный законом, статутный, законный

stewardship n – управление, распоряжение

steward n – управляющий, распорядитель; стюард

stochastic a – стохастический (переменная величина, которая определяется случаем)

stock n – акция; товарные запасы

stock analyst – аналитик акций

stock exchange – фондовая биржа

stockmarket – фондовый рынок

stock option – опцион на акции

stock split – сплит или расщепление акций

stop limit order – приказ «стоп-лимит»

stop loss order (SLO) – приказ «остановить убытки»

stop order – «стоп»-заявка

store n – магазин, хранилище; склад, запас

store v – хранить, складировать

storage n – хранение, складирование; хранилище, площадь склада

Strategic Business Unit (SBU) – стратегическая бизнес-единица

streamline v – рационализировать, оптимизировать

strike n – забастовка; исполнение (опциона)

strike price – цена исполнения

stripper – корпоративный рейдер, который покупает компанию для продажи части ее активов

subject matter jurisdiction – предметная подсудность

subordinate n – подчиненный

subordinate (to) v – подчинять, ставить в зависимость

subordinate a – зависимый, подчиненный, второстепенный, придаточный

subordinated a – субординированный, младший по объему прав

subscribe v – подписаться

subscription n – подписка

subsidize v – субсидировать

subsidy n – субсидия

substantive law – материальное право

substitution n – замена, замещение, субституция

substitute v – заменять

substitute a – взаимозаменяемый; n – заместитель, субститут

subtract v – вычитать

subtraction n – вычитание

sue v – преследовать по суду; предъявлять иск или обвинение

suffrage n – право голоса, избирательное право, голос (при голосовании)

suicide pill – «таблетка самоубийства» (средство защиты от враждебного поглощения, которое потенциально может иметь катастрофические последствия для защищающейся компании)

suit n – иск, преследование по суду, судебное дело, судебный процесс, судопроизводство

sunk costs – понесенные расходы, расходы прошлых периодов

superannuation n – пенсия по выслуге лет

superior n – начальник, руководящее лицо, превосходящий другого

superior a – лучший, превосходящий, превосходный, высшего качества

supervise v – надзирать, наблюдать

supervision n – надзор, наблюдение

supervisor n – инспектор

supplier n – поставщик

supply n, часто в pl – предложение, запас, припас, снабжение, поставка

supply v – поставлять, снабжать, доставлять, давать

supply-side economics – экономика предложения

support activities – вспомогательная деятельность

supranational a – наднациональный

Supreme Court – Верховный суд

surplus n – избыток, излишек, активное сальдо, профицит

survey n – обозрение, осмотр, обзор, инспектирование

survey v – проводить осмотр, обзор, обозрение; инспектировать

sustain v – поддерживать, выдерживать, испытывать

sustainable a – устойчивый

sustained a – длительный, поддерживаемый, непрерывный

sweat equity – капитал «на базе пота» (невознагражденный труд, который увеличивает ценность собственности)

sweatshop n – предприятие с потогонной системой труда

switching costs – издержки переключения

SWOT Analysis – анализ сильных и слабых сторон, возможностей и угроз

syndicate n – синдикат (консорциум)

syndicate v – синдицировать, образовывать синдикат

synergetic a – синергетический

synergy n – синергия

systematic risk – систематический или рыночный риск

systemic risk – системный риск

T

tailor v – зд. подгонять под конкретные нужды

take over v – поглощать

takeover n – поглощение

tangible a – материальный, осязаемый

target price – целевая (базовая) цена

targeted funds – целевые средства

tax (fiscal)authorities – налоговые органы

tax bracket – налоговый разряд

tax break – налоговая льгота

tax burden – налоговое бремя

tax evasion – уклонение от уплаты налогов незаконными методами

tax (price) hike – повышение налогов (цен)

tax package – комплекс мероприятий в области налоговой политики

tax rate – налоговая ставка

tax receipts – налоговые поступления

tax relief – налоговая скидка, освобождение от уплаты

tax revenues – налоговые доходы

taxable а – налогооблагаемый

team n – команда

technical analysis – технический анализ

technology transfer – передача технологии

template n – шаблон, лекало, калибр

term loan – срочный (с фиксированным сроком) кредит

terminal value – конечная (терминальная) ценность

think tank – «мозговой танк»

threshold n – порог

threshold a – пороговый

throughput n – пропускная способность, производительность

tier n – эшелон, ряд, слой, уровень, ярус

tombstone n – «надгробный памятник» (краткое объявление в финансовой прессе о займе, выпуске новых акций, поглощении и т. п.)

tool n – инструмент

top down – сверху вниз

top-of-the-line product – товар высшей категории

tort n – деликт, гражданское правонарушение

tortious a – деликтный

Total Quality Management (TQM) – система тотального управления качеством

total shareholder return – суммарная доходность акционеров

track n – след, остаток, признак; образ жизни; тропа, цепь, ряд; выслеживание, преследование, отслеживание

track record – послужной список, предыстория, прошлые результаты

track v – следить, выслеживать, оставлять следы, прокладывать путь

tracking n – слежение, отслеживание

trade (labor) union – профсоюз

trade ban – запрет на торговлю

trade liberalization – либерализация торговли

trade up v – зд. достичь возможного максимума

trademark n – торговая марка

trading desk – торговый стол

trading post – торговый пост

trailing stop system – система скользящих приказов «стоп»

transaction (Trans) n – сделка, операция

transaction fee – гонорар за операцию

transitional economy – страна с переходной экономикой

transparency n – прозрачность

transparent a – прозрачный

treasurer n – казначей

treasury n – казначейство, казначейский департамент

Treasury Department (US) – Казначейство США

Treasury Inflation Protected Security (TIPS) – казначейская облигация, защищенная от инфляции

Treasury stock – казначейские акции

treat v – обращаться, трактовать; лечить, обрабатывать

treatment n – обращение, трактовка; лечение, обработка

treaty n – договор

trend n – тренд, тенденция

Trial Court – суд первой инстанции

trigger n – курок, механизм; условие соглашения, невыполнение которого автоматически влечет определенные действия

trigger (off) v – приводить в движение, начинать, вызывать

triple bottom-line – тройная итоговая строка (с учетом финансовых, социальных и экологических параметров)

trouble-shooter n – специалист по улаживанию конфликтов или решению острых проблем

trouble-shooting a – улаживающий конфликты или решающий проблемы

trust n – траст, трест

turn around v – выводить (компанию) из кризиса

turnaround n – благоприятный поворот (конъюнктуры, дел компании); вывод компании из кризиса

turnover n – оборот, оборачиваемость, текучесть (кадров)

turnover ratio – коэффициент оборачиваемости

U

uncertain a – неопределенный

uncertainty n – неопределенность

underachieve v – достигать более низкиx результатов по сравнению со своими возможностями

underachiever n – достигающий более низких результатов по сравнению со своими возможностями

underlying security – базовая ценная бумага

underperform v – показывать результаты деятельности ниже возможных или ниже рынка

underperformance n – результаты деятельности ниже возможных или ниже рынка

underperformer n – юридическое или физическое лицо, показывающее результаты деятельности ниже возможных или ниже рынка

underwrite v – гарантировать, страховать

underwriting (UW) n – андеррайтинг (покупка ценных бумаг у эмитента для перепродажи или собственных инвестиций), страхование, гарантирование размещения займа

underwritor n – андеррайтер, гарант

union n – союз, профсоюз

unionization n – охват профсоюзом, объединение в профсоюз

unionize v – охватывать профсоюзом, объединять в профсоюз

unit n – часть, доля, единица, подразделение компании, набор

unit cost – себестоимость единицы продукции

unleveraged (unlevered) a – безрычаговый, без использования заемных средств

unsystematic (specific) risk – несистемный риск

update n – обновление, модернизация, изменение в соответствии с новыми данными

update v – обновлять, модернизировать, изменять в соответствии с новыми данными

upgrade n – модернизация, обновление, повышение, улучшение

upgrade v – модернизировать, обновлять, повышать (качество, рейтинг), улучшать

upside potential – потенциал роста цены или курса

upstream n – в нефтяном и газовом бизнесе – геологоразведка и добыча, в более широком смысле – производство (товаров) или генерирование (электроэнергии)

upward (downward) – направленный или движущийся вверх (вниз)

Uruguay Round – Уругвайский раунд (этап многосторонних торговых переговоров в рамках ГАТТ)

U.S. Federal Reserve Bank (Fed) – Федеральный резервный банк (США)

utility n – польза, экономическая выгода; коммунальное предприятие

V

value n – ценность, оценка (компании)

value v – ценить, оценивать (компанию)

value chain – цепочка ценности

value investing – инвестиции в акции компаний с высокой дивидендной доходностью и низким отношением цены к прибыли

value-based management – менеджмент, основанный на ценности

variable n – переменная (величина)

variable costs – переменные затраты

vehicle n – перевозочное средство; средство выражения и распространения, проводник

venture n – коммерческое предприятие; рискованное начинание

venture v – рисковать, отважиться, решиться

venture a – венчурный, рискованный

venture capital – венчурный (рисковый) капитал

venture capitalist (VC) – венчурный капиталист

vertical FDI – вертикальные прямые иностранные инвестиции

vertical integration – вертикальная интеграция

vertically-integrated company (VIC) – вертикально-интегрированная компания

vice-president (VP) – вице-президент

volatile a – волатильный, переменчивый, неустойчивый

volatility n – волатильность, переменчивость, неустойчивость

voluntary restraint – добровольное ограничение

vote n – голос

vote v – голосовать

voting a – голосующий

W

warehouse n – склад

warrant (WT) n – варрант

warranty n – гарантия (качества), поручительство, ручательство, условие

waste n – отходы, потери; расточительство, перерасход

waste v – терять, тратить попусту, расточать

Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC) – средневзвешенная стоимость капитала

welfare n – благосостояние, благоденствие, благополучие; благотворительность

whipsaw n – «продольная пила»: возможность понести двойной убыток при покупке по наивысшей цене перед снижением и продаже по самой низкой цене перед повышением

whipsaw v – понести двойные убытки

whistle-blower – лицо, поднявшее тревогу при обнаружении злоупотребления

white knight – «белый рыцарь» (дружественный инвестор, который делает предложение о поглощении компании, являющейся объектом враждебного поглощения – предложение согласовано с поглощаемой фирмой)

wholly-owned subsidiary – дочернее предприятие, на 100% принадлежащее материнской компании

withdrawal n – изъятие, увод, уход, удаление

withdraw v – изымать, отнимать, отказываться, уходить, отходить

workforce n – рабочая сила

working capital – оборотный капитал

work-in-progress (WIP) – незавершенное производство, полуфабрикаты

workload n – рабочая нагрузка

World Bank – Всемирный банк

World Trade Organization (WTO) – Всемирная торговая организация

write off n – списание

write off v – списывать

Y

year-on-year (YoY) – в годовом исчислении или в течение года

year-to-date (YTD) – с начала года до настоящего момента

yield curve – кривая доходности

Z

zero defects – бездефектный

Примечания

1

Cafeteria plans are flexible benefits that became popular during the 1980s. With these plans, an employee allocates a set amount of benefit dollars according to personal choice.

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2

К упражнениям, отмеченным знаком *, в конце книги даются ключи.

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3

If you need a good example of this consider Nick Leeson, the currency trader who brought down Great Britain’s Barings Bank, who is now resting comfortably in some Singapore prison for not cutting his losses when his bet on the direction of the Japanese stock market went against him.

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4

Placing contingent orders, such as «stop-loss» or «stop-limit» orders, will not always limit your losses to the intended amounts, due to slippage or market conditions on the exchange where the order is placed.

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5

Данные по US GAAP за 2007 г.

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6

Данные по US GAAP за 2007 г.

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Оглавление

Предисловие

Lesson 1 Motivation Theories

  Motivation Theories

  Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

  McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

  McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory

  Equity Theory

  Expectancy Theory

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 2 Corporate Culture

  How to Achieve Excellence by Managing the Culture in your Company

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 3 Program Management

  How Ford Hit the Bull’s-eye with Taurus

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 4 Japanese Management Principles

  From JIT to Lean Manufacturing

  1. Batch Quantities

  2. Safety Stocks / Quality

  3. Supplier Partnerships

  4. The Elimination of Variety

  5. Shortened Cycle Times

  6. «Pull»

    Culture

    The Move to Lean from JIT

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 5 Great Managers

  How Jack Welch Ran GE

  Show and Tell

  Roses and Champagne

  Stick and Carrot

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 6 Corporate Strategy

  Carly’s Challenge

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 7 Marketing Mix

  Four Ps of Marketing

    What is Marketing?

    The Selling Process

    The Marketing Process

    Selling vs. Marketing Processes:

    Planning vs. Forecasting?

  The 4 Ps of Marketing or the Marketing «Mix»

  Product

  Price

  Place (i.e. distribution)

  Promotion

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 8 The Past, Present and Future of Marketing

  According to Kotler: The World’s Foremost Authority on Marketing Answers Your Questions

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 9 Strategic Management Models

  The BCG Growth-Share Matrix

  Limitations

  The GE/McKinsey Matrix

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 10 Strategic Management Analysis

  SWOT Analysis

  The SWOT Matrix

  The Value Chain

  Primary Value Chain Activities

  Support Activities

  Value-Chain Analysis

  The Value System

  PEST Analysis

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 11 Strategic Management Tools

  The Balanced Scorecard

  Double-Loop Feedback

  Why Do Executives Love Balanced Scorecard?

  The Payoff: BSC Customer Profitability Metrics

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 12 Management Innovations

  Delivering Superior Shareholder Value

  Measuring Value Creation

  A Case Study in Delivering Shareholder Value – BP

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 13 Conflict between Managers and Shareholders

  Agency Problem

  Agency Theory and Agency Problems

  Goal Congruence

  Conflict Between Managers and Shareholders

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 14 Corporate Scandals

  The Fall of Enron How ex-CEO Jeff Skilling’s strategy grew so complex that even his boss couldn’t get a handle on it

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 15 Corporate Governance

  Corporate governance

  Parties to corporate governance

  Principles

  Mechanisms and controls

  Internal corporate governance controls

  External corporate governance controls

  Rules versus principles

  Corporate governance models around the world

  Codes and guidelines

  Corporate governance and firm performance

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 16 Corporate Social Responsibility

  People, Planet and Profit

  CSR reporting

  Criticism of CSR

  People, Planet, Profit: The Value of CSR

  Branding

  Socially Responsible Investment Institutions

  Legislation and Litigation

  Employees and Customers

  Product Improvement / Cost Reduction

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 17 Industry Analysis

  Porter’s Five Forces

  Porter’s 5 Forces

    I. Rivalry

    II. Threat of Substitutes

    III. Buyer Power

    IV. Supplier Power

    V. Barriers to Entry / Threat of Entry

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 18 Industry Trends

  Global Consolidation Threat: Can East European Companies Survive?

  Understanding the Consolidation Curve

  Global Titans about to Emerge

  Consolidation Strategy

  Conclusion

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 19 New Industry

  Venture capital

  Venture capital fund operations

  How and why VCs invest

  Winners and losers

  History

  The dotcom boom

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 20 Global M&As

  Extinction of the Predator

  Seduced by Scale

  The Brand News

  In-breeding as a Virtue

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 21 Emerging Markets

  Emerging Markets: Has Their Time Finally Come?

  1. Historically Low Valuations

  2. Economic Triggers – Near Term

  3. Market Volatility Change as a Spur to Outperformance

  4. Economic Triggers – Long Term

  5. Assessing the Long-Term Fundamental Case

  6. Conclusion

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 22 Macroeconomic Theories

  The Greatest Economist of the 20th Century: John Maynard Keynes

  Keynes and the Classics

  Wages and Spending

  Excessive Saving

  Active Fiscal Policy

  The «Multiplier Effect»

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 23 Macroeconomic Landscape

  U.S. Fiscal Imbalance Biggest Since 1959

  U.S.: Businesses Are Betting On A Happy New Year

  The Rush to Invest in Russia

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 24 Globalization

  Globalization

  Globalization History

  Characteristics

  Anti-globalization

  Pro-globalization (Globalism)

  Measurement of Globalization

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 25 Multinational Companies

  Are You Ready to Go Global?

  Automotive MNCs in Russia

  Ford’s approach

  General Motor’s approach

  Summary and conclusions

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 26 Foreign Trade

  The Basics of Foreign Trade

    Free Trade Vs. Protectionism

    Arguments for Protection

    Methods of Protection

    Arguments for Free Trade

    Measures of Trade

  Current Account

  Capital Account

  Balance of Payments Deficit and Surplus

  Measuring Imports and Exports

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 27 Foreign Exchange Market

  What is FOREX?

  Participants of a Foreign Exchange Market

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 28 Stock Exchanges

  Getting to Know Stock Exchanges

  How Does It All Start?

  Auction Exchanges – NYSE and Amex

  New York Stock Exchange

  NASDAQ (an Electronic Exchange)

  NASDAQ Small Cap

  Electronic Communication Networks (ECNs)

  Over-the-Counter (OTC)

  There are two OTC markets:

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 29 Equity Securities

  Introduction to Securities

  Uses of Securities

  Debt and Equity

  Ownership

  Shareholder Rights

  Buying

  Selling

  Types of Shares

  Securities Markets

  Legal Nature of Securities: Bearer and Registered Securities

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 30 Fixed Income Securities

  A Stock Buyer’s Guide to Bond Investing

    Some Bond Market Basics

    Callable and Bullet Structures

    Governments

    Treasury Securities

    Agencies

    Mortgages

    Corporates

    Corporate Bond Credit Quality

    Municipals

    Certificates of Deposit

    Putting It All Together

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 31 How IPOs are Organized

  IPO Procedure

  Legal Requirements in the United States

  Legal Requirements in the European Union

  Pricing

  Investment Banks

  Definitions

  Role of Modern Investment Banks

  The Main Activities and Units

  Recent Evolution of the Business

  Possible Conflicts of Interest

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 32 Commodity Trading

  The 10 Commandments of Successful Commodity Trading

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 33 Valuation of Russian Companies

  Company Handbook

    Figure 1. Renaissance Capital Stock Focus List

    Recap of Stock/Sector Performance Year-to-Date

    Figure 2. The Best Performing Russian Stocks in 2003 Year-to-Date

    Figure 3. The Worst Performing Russian Stocks in 2003 Year-to-Date

    Figure 4. Performance of the Top Russian Stocks in 2003 Year-to-Date

  On the Valuation of Russian Equities

  The International Perspective

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 34 Equity Research Report

  Aeroflot: Taking Off

  Summary Valuation of Aeroflot

  Aeroflot Trading Data

  Price Drivers

  Forecasts Upgraded

  Price Performance

  Valuation

  Enterprise Value Compared

  Future Earnings Compared

  ROCE

  Methods of Target Price Valuation

  Aeroflot DCF Model (Base Case Scenario)

  WACC Calculations

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 35 Successful Investment Strategy: Theory and Practice

  Modern Portfolio Theory: An Overview

  The Theory

  Two Kinds of Risk

  The Efficient Frontier

  Figure 1

  Figure 2

    What MPT Means for You

    Conclusion

    Warren Buffett: How He Does It

    Buffett’s Philosophy

    Buffett’s Methodology

    Conclusion

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 36 Corporate Finance

  Corporate Finance for Beginners

  Balance Sheet Approach to Valuation

  Cash vs. Profits

  Cash Cycle

  Revenue, Expenses, and Inventory

  Assets

  Inventory

  Payables

  Financial Ratios

  Bank Loans

  Sources and Uses of Cash

  Firm Value, Equity Value, and Debt Value

  Capital Structure

  Risk Premiums

  Cost of Capital

  Unlevered Free Cash Flows

  Terminal Value

  Cash Flows to Debt and Equity

  Hurdle Price

  Debt Valuation

  Optimal Capital Structure

  Share Buyback

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 37 Raising Credit

  The Credit Process: A Guide For Small Business Owners

    Introduction

    Sources and Types of Funding

    Financial Analysis

    Gross Profit Margin

    Operating Profit Margin

  Quick Ratio

  Current Ratio

  Debt Ratio

  Collection Period Ratio

  Days to Sell Inventory Ratio

  Days Purchases in Accounts Payable Ratio

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 38 Business Law

  Business Law

  The American Legal System

  Essential Vocabulary

Lesson 39 Making Presentations

  The Art of Making Sales Presentations

Lesson 40 Financial Statements

  Report of Independent Registered Public Accounting Firm on Consolidated Financial Statements

    The Board of Directors and Stockholders

  Essential Vocabulary

Keys to Exercises

  Lesson 1

  Lesson 2

  Lesson 3

  Lesson 4

  Lesson 5

  Lesson 6

  Lesson 7

  Lesson 8

  Lesson 9

  Lesson 10

  Lesson 11

  Lesson 12

  Lesson 13

  Lesson 14

  Lesson 15

  Lesson 16

  Lesson 17

  Lesson 18

  Lesson 19

  Lesson 20

  Lesson 21

  Lesson 22

  Lesson 23

  Lesson 24

  Lesson 25

  Lesson 26

  Lesson 27

  Lesson 28

  Lesson 29

  Lesson 30

  Lesson 31

  Lesson 32

  Lesson 33

  Lesson 34

  Lesson 35

  Leeson 36

  Lesson 37

  Lesson 38

English-Russian dictionary

  A

  B

  С

  D

  E

  F

  G

  H

  I

  J

  K

  L

  M

  N

  O

  P

  Q

  R

  S

  T

  U

  V

  W

  Y

  Z

Fueled by Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg